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Electric Power Distribution Engineering 3rd Gonen Solution Manual

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Electric Power Distribution Engineering 3rd Gonen Solution Manual

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Product Details:

  • ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1482207001
  • ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1482207002
  • Author:  Turan Gönen

A quick scan of any bookstore, library, or online bookseller will produce a multitude of books covering power systems. However, few, if any, are totally devoted to power distribution engineering, and none of them are true textbooks. Filling this vacuum in the power system engineering literature, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering broke new ground.

Written in the classic, self-learning style of the original, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, Third Edition is updated and expanded with:

  • Over 180 detailed numerical examples
  • More than 170 end-of-chapter problems
  • New MATLAB® applications

The Third Edition also features new chapters on:

  • Distributed generation
  • Renewable energy (e.g., wind and solar energies)
  • Modern energy storage systems
  • Smart grids and their applications

Designed specifically for junior- or senior-level electrical engineering courses, the book covers all aspects of distribution engineering from basic system planning and concepts through distribution system protection and reliability. Drawing on decades of experience to provide a text that is as attractive to students as it is useful to professors and practicing engineers, the author demonstrates how to design, analyze, and perform modern distribution system engineering. He takes special care to cover industry terms and symbols, providing a glossary and clearly defining each term when it is introduced. The discussion of distribution planning and design considerations goes beyond the usual analytical and qualitative analysis to emphasize the economical explication and overall impact of the distribution design considerations discussed.

 

Table of Content:

  1. 1 Distribution System Planning and Automation
  2. 1.1 INTRODUCTION
  3. 1.2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING
  4. FIGURE 1.1 Typical investment trends in electric utility plants in service.
  5. FIGURE 1.2 Typical trends in electric utility plants in service by percent of sector.
  6. FIGURE 1.3 Typical ratio of maintenance expenses to plant in service for each utility sector. The data are for privately owned class A and class B electric utilities.
  7. 1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEM PLANNING
  8. 1.3.1 Load Forecasting
  9. FIGURE 1.4 Factors affecting load forecast.
  10. 1.3.2 Substation Expansion
  11. FIGURE 1.5 Factors affecting substation expansion.
  12. 1.3.3 Substation Site Selection
  13. FIGURE 1.6 Factors affecting substation siting.
  14. FIGURE 1.7 Substation site selection procedure.
  15. 1.3.4 Other Factors
  16. FIGURE 1.8 Factors affecting total cost of the distribution system expansion.
  17. 1.4 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING TECHNIQUES
  18. FIGURE 1.9 A block diagram of a typical distribution system planning process.
  19. 1.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING MODELS
  20. 1.5.1 Computer Applications
  21. 1.5.2 New Expansion Planning
  22. 1.5.3 Augmentation and Upgrades
  23. 1.5.4 Operational Planning
  24. 1.5.5 Benefits of Optimization Applications
  25. 1.6 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING IN THE FUTURE
  26. 1.6.1 Economic Factors
  27. 1.6.2 Demographic Factors
  28. 1.6.3 Technological Factors
  29. 1.7 FUTURE NATURE OF DISTRIBUTION PLANNING
  30. 1.7.1 Increasing Importance of Good Planning
  31. 1.7.2 Impacts of Load Management (or Demand-Side Management)
  32. 1.7.3 Cost/Benefit Ratio for Innovation
  33. 1.7.4 New Planning Tools
  34. 1.8 CENTRAL ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN DISTRIBUTION PLANNING
  35. 1.8.1 System Approach
  36. 1.8.2 Database Concept
  37. FIGURE 1.10 A schematic view of a distribution planning system.
  38. 1.8.3 New Automated Tools
  39. 1.9 IMPACT OF DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
  40. 1.10 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUTOMATION
  41. TABLE 1.1 Comparison of DSG Devices
  42. TABLE 1.2 Interaction between DSG Factors and Energy Management System Functions
  43. TABLE 1.3 Profile of the Electric Utility Industry in the United States in the Year 2000
  44. FIGURE 1.11 In the future, small dispersed-energy-storage-and-generation units attached to a customer’s home, a power distribution feeder, or a substation would require an increasing amount of automation and control.
  45. FIGURE 1.12 Monitoring and controlling of an electric power system.
  46. 1.10.1 Distribution Automation and Control Functions
  47. TABLE 1.4 Automated Distribution Functions Correlated with Locations
  48. 1.10.2 Level of Penetration of Distribution Automation
  49. TABLE 1.5 Functional Scope of Power Distribution Automation System
  50. FIGURE 1.13 Applications of two-way radio communications.
  51. FIGURE 1.14 The research system consisted of two minicomputers with distributed high-speed data acquisition processing units at the La Grange Park Substation.
  52. FIGURE 1.15 Substation control and protection system that features a common signal bus (center lines) to control recording, comparison, and follow-up actions (right). Critical processes are shaded.
  53. FIGURE 1.16 The integrated distribution control and protection system of EPRI.
  54. 1.10.3 Alternatives of Communication Systems
  55. TABLE 1.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of the Power-Line, Radio, and Telephone Carriers
  56. FIGURE 1.17 A control hierarchy envisaged for future utilities.
  57. 1.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
  58. REFERENCES
  59. 2 Load Characteristics
  60. 2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  61. Example 2.1
  62. FIGURE 2.1 A daily demand variation curve.
  63. FIGURE 2.2 A load duration curve.
  64. TABLE 2.1 Idealized Load Data for the NL&NP’s Primary Feeder
  65. FIGURE 2.3 The daily load curve for Example 2.1.
  66. FIGURE 2.4 Development of aggregate load curves for winter peak period. Miscellaneous load includes street lighting and sales to other agencies. Dashed curve shown on system load diagram is actual system generation sent out. Solid curve is based on group load study data.
  67. Example 2.2
  68. Example 2.3
  69. FIGURE 2.5 Illustration of load connected to a distribution transformer.
  70. Example 2.4
  71. Example 2.5
  72. FIGURE 2.6 NL&NP’s riverside distribution substation.
  73. FIGURE 2.7 Daily load curves of a substation transformer.
  74. Example 2.6
  75. 2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS FACTORS
  76. FIGURE 2.8 A feeder with a variable load.
  77. FIGURE 2.9 An arbitrary and ideal load curve.
  78. FIGURE 2.10 Loss factor curves as a function of load factor.
  79. Example 2.7
  80. Example 2.8
  81. FIGURE 2.11 A monthly load curve.
  82. Example 2.9
  83. FIGURE 2.12 The new load curve after the new load addition.
  84. Example 2.10
  85. Example 2.11
  86. 2.3 MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND
  87. Example 2.12
  88. TABLE 2.2 Hourly Variation Factors
  89. FIGURE 2.13 Maximum diversified 30 min demand characteristics of various residential loads: A, clothes dryer; B, off-peak water heater, “off-peak” load; C, water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked elements; D, range; E, lighting and miscellaneous appliances; F, 0.5-hp room coolers; G, off-peak water heater, “on-peak” load, upper element uncontrolled; H, oil burner; I, home freezer; J, refrigerator; K, central air-conditioning, including heat-pump cooling, 5-hp heat pump (4-ton air conditioner); L, house heating, including heat-pump-heating-connected load of 15 kW unit-type resistance heating or 5 hp heat pump.
  90. 2.4 LOAD FORECASTING
  91. TABLE 2.3 MATLAB® Demand-Forecasting Computer Program
  92. 2.4.1 Box—Jenkins Methodology
  93. 2.4.2 Small-Area Load Forecasting
  94. 2.4.3 Spatial Load Forecasting
  95. FIGURE 2.14 Spatial load forecasting.
  96. Example 2.13
  97. TABLE 2.4 Demand Forecasting MATLAB Program
  98. Example 2.14
  99. FIGURE 2.15 The answers for the parts (a) and (b).
  100. 2.5 LOAD MANAGEMENT
  101. Example 2.15
  102. 2.6 RATE STRUCTURE
  103. 2.6.1 Customer Billing
  104. FIGURE 2.16 A customer’s monthly electric bill.
  105. TABLE 2.5 Typical Energy Rate Schedule for Commercial Users
  106. 2.6.2 Fuel Cost Adjustment
  107. Example 2.16
  108. FIGURE 2.17 Two customers connected to a primary line of the NL&NP.
  109. 2.7 ELECTRIC METER TYPES
  110. FIGURE 2.18 Single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
  111. FIGURE 2.19 Basic parts of a single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
  112. FIGURE 2.20 Diagram of a typical motor and magnetic retarding system for a single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
  113. FIGURE 2.21 Typical polyphase (electromechanical) watthour meters: (a) self-contained meter (socket-connected cyclometer type). (b) transformer-rated meter (bottom-connected pointer type).
  114. FIGURE 2.22 Single-phase, two-wire electromechanical watthour meter connected to a high-voltage circuit through current and potential transformers.
  115. FIGURE 2.23 The register of an electromechanical demand meter for large customers.
  116. 2.7.1 Electronic (or Digital) Meters
  117. 2.7.2 Reading Electric Meters
  118. FIGURE 2.24 A conventional dial-type register of electromechanical meter.
  119. FIGURE 2.25 A cyclometer-type register.
  120. 2.7.3 Instantaneous Load Measurements Using Electromechanical Watthour Meters
  121. Example 2.17
  122. Example 2.18
  123. Example 2.19
  124. PROBLEMS
  125. TABLE P.2.1 Typical Summer-Day Load, in kW
  126. REFERENCES
  127. 3 Application of Distribution Transformers
  128. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
  129. TABLE 3.1 Standard Transformer Kilovoltamperes and Voltages
  130. TABLE 3.2 Designation of Voltage Ratings for Single- and Three-Phase Distribution Transformers
  131. 3.2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
  132. FIGURE 3.1 Overhead pole-mounted distribution transformers: (a) single-phase completely self-protecting (or conventional) and (b) three phase.
  133. FIGURE 3.2 Network transformer.
  134. FIGURE 3.3 Dry-type pole-mounted resibloc transformer.
  135. FIGURE 3.4 Dry-type resibloc network transformer.
  136. FIGURE 3.5 Outdoor three-phase dry-type resibloc transformer.
  137. FIGURE 3.6 Pad-mount-type single-phase resibloc transformer.
  138. FIGURE 3.7 Pad-mount three-phase resibloc transformer.
  139. FIGURE 3.8 An arch flash-resistant dry-type three-phase resibloc transformer.
  140. FIGURE 3.9 TRIDRY dry-type resibloc transformer.
  141. FIGURE 3.10 VPI dry resibloc transformer.
  142. FIGURE 3.11 Pad-mount installation of three-phase resibloc transformer.
  143. FIGURE 3.12 Various types of transformer: (a) a typical secondary unit substation transformer, (b) a typical single-phase pole-type tansformer, (c) a single-phase pad-mounted transformer, and (d) three-phase pad-mounted transformer.
  144. FIGURE 3.13 Various types of transformers: (a) three-phase sub-surface-vault type transformer, (b) a typical mobile transformer, and (c) a typical power transformer.
  145. TABLE 3.3 Electrical Characteristics of Typical Single-Phase Distribution Transformers
  146. TABLE 3.4 Electrical Characteristics of Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted Transformers
  147. 3.3 REGULATION
  148. 3.4 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
  149. FIGURE 3.14 Transformer efficiency chart applicable only to the unity PF condition. To obtain the efficiency at a given load, lay a straightedge across the iron and copper loss values and read the efficiency at the point where the straightedge cuts the required load ordinate.
  150. 3.5 TERMINAL OR LEAD MARKINGS
  151. FIGURE 3.15 Transformer efficiency chart applicable only to the unity PF condition. To obtain the efficiency at a given load, lay a straightedge across the iron and copper loss values and read the efficiency at the point where the straightedge cuts the required load ordinate.
  152. FIGURE 3.16 Cost of electric energy.
  153. FIGURE 3.17 Annual cost per unit load vs. load level.
  154. 3.6 TRANSFORMER POLARITY
  155. FIGURE 3.18 Additive and subtractive polarity connections: (a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity.
  156. FIGURE 3.19 Polarity test: (a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity.
  157. 3.7 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING GUIDES
  158. 3.8 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF A TRANSFORMER
  159. FIGURE 3.20 Basic circuit of a practical transformer.
  160. FIGURE 3.21 Equivalent circuit of a loaded transformer.
  161. FIGURE 3.22 Phasor diagram corresponding to the excitation current components at no load.
  162. FIGURE 3.23 Equivalent circuit with the referred secondary values.
  163. FIGURE 3.24 Simplified equivalent circuit assuming negligible excitation current.
  164. FIGURE 3.25 Simplified equivalent circuit for a large-sized power transformer.
  165. 3.9 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
  166. 3.9.1 General
  167. FIGURE 3.26 Single-phase transformer connections.
  168. FIGURE 3.27 Single-phase transformer connections.
  169. 3.9.2 Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling
  170. FIGURE 3.28 Single-phase transformer paralleling.
  171. FIGURE 3.29 Parallel operation of two single-phase transformers.
  172. FIGURE 3.30 Two transformers connected in parallel and feeding a load.
  173. FIGURE 3.31 Equivalent circuit.
  174. Example 3.1
  175. FIGURE 3.32 An equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer with three-wire secondary.
  176. Example 3.2
  177. FIGURE 3.33 Secondary line-to-neutral fault.
  178. FIGURE 3.34 Secondary line-to-line fault.
  179. Example 3.3
  180. Example 3.4
  181. 3.10 THREE-PHASE CONNECTIONS
  182. 3.10.1 Δ–Δ Transformer Connection
  183. FIGURE 3.35 Eco-dry three-phase (RESIBLOC) transformer.
  184. FIGURE 3.36 Air-to-water cooled RESIBLOC three-phase transformer.
  185. FIGURE 3.37 Eco-dry (RESIBLOC) three-phase transformer.
  186. FIGURE 3.38 Vacuum cast dry-type transformer.
  187. FIGURE 3.39 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection with 0° angular displacement.
  188. FIGURE 3.40 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection with 180° angular displacement.
  189. FIGURE 3.41 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection to provide 120/208/240 V three-phase four-wire service.
  190. TABLE 3.5 Permissible Percent Loading on Odd and Like Transformers as a Function of the Z1/Z2 Ratio
  191. FIGURE 3.42 Equivalent circuit of a Δ–Δ-connected transformer bank.
  192. Example 3.5
  193. FIGURE 3.43 For Example 3.5.
  194. 3.10.2 Open-Δ Open-Δ Transformer Connection
  195. FIGURE 3.44 Three-phase four-wire open-delta connection.
  196. FIGURE 3.45 Three-phase three-wire open-delta connection.
  197. TABLE 3.6 Effects of the Load Power Factor on the Transformer Power Factors
  198. 3.10.3 Y–Y Transformer Connection
  199. FIGURE 3.46 Y–Y connection to provide a 120/208 V grounded-wye three-phase four-wire multigrounded service.
  200. 3.10.4 Y–Δ Transformer Connection
  201. FIGURE 3.47 Y–Δ connection to provide a 120/208/240 V three-phase four-wire secondary service.
  202. FIGURE 3.48 Y–Δ connection to provide a 240 V three-phase three-wire secondary service.
  203. 3.10.5 Open-Y Open-Δ Transformer Connection
  204. Example 3.6
  205. FIGURE 3.49 Open-wye open-delta connection.
  206. FIGURE 3.50 Open-wye open-delta connection for Example 3.6.
  207. 3.10.6 Δ–Y Transformer Connection
  208. FIGURE 3.51 Δ–Y connection with 30° angular displacement.
  209. FIGURE 3.52 Δ–Y connection with 210° angular displacement.
  210. 3.11 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
  211. FIGURE 3.53 Three-phase transformer connected in delta–delta.
  212. FIGURE 3.54 Three-phase transformer connected in open-delta.
  213. FIGURE 3.55 Three-phase transformer connected in Y–Δ.
  214. FIGURE 3.56 Three-phase transformer connected in open-wye open-delta.
  215. FIGURE 3.57 Three-phase transformer connected in Y–Y.
  216. 3.12 T OR SCOTT CONNECTION
  217. FIGURE 3.58 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, three-wire transformation.
  218. FIGURE 3.59 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, four-wire transformation.
  219. FIGURE 3.60 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, five-wire transformation.
  220. Example 3.7
  221. FIGURE 3.61 For Example 3.7.
  222. FIGURE 3.62 For Example 3.7.
  223. Example 3.8
  224. FIGURE 3.63 A particular T–T connection.
  225. FIGURE 3.64 The required low-voltage phasor diagram.
  226. Example 3.9
  227. FIGURE 3.65 Phasor diagram for Example 3.9.
  228. Example 3.10
  229. Example 3.11
  230. FIGURE 3.66 Two single-phase transformers connected in open-wye and open-delta.
  231. FIGURE 3.67 The low-voltage phasor diagram for Example 3.11.
  232. 3.13 AUTOTRANSFORMER
  233. FIGURE 3.68 Wiring diagram of a single-phase autotransformer.
  234. FIGURE 3.69 Single-phase autotransformer.
  235. FIGURE 3.70 Three-phase autotransformer.
  236. 3.14 BOOSTER TRANSFORMERS
  237. FIGURE 3.71 Single-phase booster transformer connection: (a) for 5% boost and (b) for 10% boost.
  238. FIGURE 3.72 Three-phase three-wire booster transformer connection using two single-phase booster transformers.
  239. 3.15 AMORPHOUS METAL DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
  240. FIGURE 3.73 Three-phase three-wire booster transformer connection using three single-phase booster transformers.
  241. 3.16 NATURE OF ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENTS
  242. FIGURE 3.74 A three-phase system: (a) with four wires and wye-connected load and (b) three wires and wye- or delta-connected load.
  243. FIGURE 3.75 For Example 3.12.
  244. Example 3.12
  245. FIGURE 3.76 Solutions for Example 3.12.
  246. Example 3.13
  247. FIGURE 3.77 Three-phase transformer connection for Example 3.12.
  248. FIGURE 3.78 The answers for Example 3.12.
  249. FIGURE 3.79 Δ–Y transformer bank connections for Example 3.13.
  250. Example 3.14
  251. Example 3.15
  252. FIGURE 3.80 Solutions for Example 3.13.
  253. Example 3.16
  254. FIGURE 3.81 Three-phase transformer connections for Example 3.12.
  255. 3.17 ZIGZAG POWER TRANSFORMERS
  256. FIGURE 3.82 The answers for Example 3.12.
  257. FIGURE 3.83 Three-phase transformer connections for Example 3.16.
  258. FIGURE 3.84 Solutions for Example 3.16.
  259. 3.18 GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS USED IN THE UTILITY SYSTEMS
  260. FIGURE 3.85 Two different ways of connecting a grounding transformer to the system.
  261. FIGURE 3.86 A Y–Δ transformer can also be used as a grounding transformer.
  262. FIGURE 3.87 (a through d) A zigzag transformer is often used to obtain a neutral for the grounding of a Δ–Δ connected system.
  263. 3.19 PROTECTION SCHEME OF A DISTRIBUTION FEEDER CIRCUIT
  264. FIGURE 3.88 A distribution feeder protection scheme.
  265. PROBLEMS
  266. FIGURE P3.1 For Problem 3.1.
  267. FIGURE P3.3 A T–T connection.
  268. FIGURE P3.6 For Problem 3.6.
  269. FIGURE P3.7 For Problem 3.7.
  270. FIGURE P3.8 For Problem 3.8.
  271. REFERENCES
  272. 4 Design of Subtransmission Lines and Distribution Substations
  273. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
  274. FIGURE 4.1 One-line diagram of a typical distribution system.
  275. 4.2 SUBTRANSMISSION
  276. FIGURE 4.2 Radial-type subtransmission.
  277. FIGURE 4.3 Improved form of radial-type subtransmission.
  278. FIGURE 4.4 Loop-type subtransmission.
  279. FIGURE 4.5 Grid- or network-type subtransmission.
  280. 4.2.1 Subtransmission Line Costs
  281. 4.3 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS
  282. FIGURE 4.6 A typical distribution substation.
  283. FIGURE 4.7 A typical small distribution substation.
  284. FIGURE 4.8 Overview of a modern substation.
  285. FIGURE 4.9 Close view of typical modern distribution substation transformer.
  286. FIGURE 4.10 Primary unit substation transformer.
  287. FIGURE 4.11 Secondary unit substation transformer.
  288. FIGURE 4.12 A 630 kVA, 10/0.4 kV GEAFOL solid dielectric transformer.
  289. FIGURE 4.13 Oil distribution transformer: cutaway of a TUMERIC transformer with an oil expansion tank showing in the foreground and TUNORMA with an oil expansion tank shown in the background.
  290. FIGURE 4.14 A 630 kVA, 10/0.4 kV GEAFOL solid dielectric transformer.
  291. FIGURE 4.15 A 40 MVA, 110 kV ± 16%/21 kV, three-phase, core-type transformer, 5.2 m high, 9.4 m long, 3 m wide, and weighing 80 tons.
  292. 4.3.1 Substation Costs
  293. FIGURE 4.16 A850/950/1100 MVA, 415 kV ± 11%/27 kV, three-phase, shell-type transformer, 11.3 m high, 14 m long, 5.7 m wide, and weighing (without cooling oil) 552 tons.
  294. FIGURE 4.17 A completely assembled 910 MVA, 20.5/500 kV, three-phase, step-up transformer, about 12 m high, 11 m long, 9 m wide, and weighing 562 tons.
  295. FIGURE 4.18 A typical core and coil assembly of a three-phase, core-type, power transformer.
  296. Example 4.1
  297. 4.4 SUBSTATION BUS SCHEMES
  298. 4.5 SUBSTATION LOCATION
  299. FIGURE 4.19 A typical single bus scheme.
  300. FIGURE 4.20 A typical double bus–double breaker scheme.
  301. FIGURE 4.21 A typical main-and-transfer bus scheme.
  302. FIGURE 4.22 A typical double bus–single breaker scheme.
  303. FIGURE 4.23 A typical ring bus scheme.
  304. FIGURE 4.24 A typical breaker-and-a-half scheme.
  305. 4.6 RATING OF A DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION
  306. TABLE 4.1 Summary of Comparison of Switching Schemesa
  307. FIGURE 4.25 Square-shaped distribution substation service area.
  308. FIGURE 4.26 The K constant for copper conductors, assuming a lagging-load power factor of 0.9.
  309. FIGURE 4.27 Hexagonally shaped distribution substation area.
  310. 4.7 GENERAL CASE: SUBSTATION SERVICE AREA WITH n PRIMARY FEEDERS
  311. FIGURE 4.28 Distribution substation service area served by n primary feeders.
  312. TABLE 4.2 Application Results of Equation 4.17
  313. 4.8 COMPARISON OF THE FOUR- AND SIX-FEEDER PATTERNS
  314. 4.9 DERIVATION OF THE K CONSTANT
  315. FIGURE 4.29 An illustration of a primary-feeder main.
  316. FIGURE 4.30 Phasor diagram.
  317. Example 4.2
  318. Example 4.3
  319. Example 4.4
  320. FIGURE 4.31 The feeder of Example 4.2.
  321. FIGURE 4.32 The feeder of Example 4.4.
  322. Example 4.5
  323. FIGURE 4.33 The feeder of Example 4.5.
  324. Example 4.6
  325. 4.10 SUBSTATION APPLICATION CURVES
  326. FIGURE 4.34 Distribution substation application curves for 3% voltage drop.
  327. FIGURE 4.35 Distribution substation application curves for 6% voltage drop.
  328. Example 4.7
  329. TABLE 4.3 Data for Example 4.7
  330. TABLE 4.4 Cases of Example 4.7
  331. 4.11 INTERPRETATION OF PERCENT VOLTAGE DROP FORMULA
  332. TABLE 4.5 Illustration of the Use and Interpretation of Equation 4.85
  333. Example 4.8
  334. Example 4.9
  335. FIGURE 4.36 For Example 4.9.
  336. Example 4.10
  337. FIGURE 4.37 Service area for Example 4.10.
  338. Example 4.11
  339. FIGURE 4.38 Service area for Example 4.11.
  340. FIGURE 4.39 Linearly decreasing load for Example 4.11.
  341. Example 4.12
  342. 4.12 CAPABILITY OF FACILITIES
  343. 4.13 SUBSTATION GROUNDING
  344. 4.13.1 Electric Shock and Its Effects on Humans
  345. TABLE 4.6 Effect of Electric Current (mA) on Men and Women
  346. TABLE 4.7 Resistivity of Different Soils
  347. Example 4.13
  348. 4.13.2 Ground Resistance
  349. TABLE 4.8 Resistivity of Different Soils
  350. TABLE 4.9 Effect of Moisture Content on Soil Resistivity
  351. FIGURE 4.40 Typical electric shock hazard situations: (a) touch potential; (b) its equivalent circuit; (c) step potential; (d) its equivalent circuit.
  352. FIGURE 4.41 Possible basic shock situations.
  353. 4.13.3 Reduction of Factor Cs
  354. FIGURE 4.42 Surface layer derating factor Cs versus thickness of surface material in m.
  355. Example 4.14
  356. FIGURE 4.43 Resistance of earth surrounding an electrode.
  357. FIGURE 4.44 Variation of soil resistivity with depth for soil having uniform moisture content at all depths.
  358. 4.13.4 Soil Resistivity Measurements
  359. 4.13.4.1 Wenner Four-Pin Method
  360. FIGURE 4.45 Approximate ground resistivity distribution in the United States.
  361. FIGURE 4.46 The Wenner four-pin method.
  362. 4.13.4.2 Three-Pin or Driven Ground Rod Method
  363. FIGURE 4.47 Circuit diagram for three-pin or driven ground rod method.
  364. 4.14 SUBSTATION GROUNDING
  365. FIGURE 4.48 The relationship between asymmetrical fault current, dc decaying component, and symmetrical fault current.
  366. 4.15 GROUND CONDUCTOR SIZING FACTORS
  367. TABLE 4.10 Material Constants of the Typical Grounding Material Used
  368. 4.16 MESH VOLTAGE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
  369. FIGURE 4.49 The effect of the spacing (D) between conductors on Km.
  370. FIGURE 4.50 The effect of the number of conductors (n) on the Km.
  371. FIGURE 4.51 The relationship between the diameter of the conductor (d) and the Km.
  372. FIGURE 4.52 The relationship between the depth of the conductor (h) and Km.
  373. 4.17 STEP VOLTAGE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
  374. FIGURE 4.53 The relationship between the distance (D) between the conductors and the geometric factor Ks.
  375. FIGURE 4.54 The relationship between the number of conductors (n) and the geometric factor Ks.
  376. FIGURE 4.55 The relationship between the depth of grid conductors (h) in meter and the geometric factor Ks.
  377. 4.18 TYPES OF GROUND FAULTS
  378. 4.18.1 Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault
  379. 4.18.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault
  380. 4.19 GROUND POTENTIAL RISE
  381. FIGURE 4.56 The effects of the number of grid conductors (n), without ground rods, on the ground grid resistance.
  382. Example 4.15
  383. FIGURE 4.57 The effects of varying the depth of burial of the grid (h) from 0.5 to 2.5 m and the number of conductors from 4 to 10[17].
  384. FIGURE 4.58 Substation grounding design procedure block diagram.
  385. TABLE 4.11 Initial Design Parameters
  386. TABLE 4.12 Approximate Equivalent Impedance of Transmission Line Overhead Shield Wires and Distribution Feeder Neutrals
  387. 4.20 TRANSMISSION LINE GROUNDS
  388. FIGURE 4.59 Two basic types of counterpoises: (a) continuous (parallel) and (b) radial.
  389. 4.21 TYPES OF GROUNDING
  390. FIGURE 4.60 Grounding transformers used in delta-connected systems: (a) using grounded wye–delta-connected small distribution transformers or (b) using grounding autotransformers with interconnected wye or “zigzag” windings.
  391. 4.22 TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATIONS
  392. TABLE 4.13 Equivalent Cooling Classes
  393. PROBLEMS
  394. REFERENCES
  395. 5 Design Considerations of Primary Systems
  396. 5.1 INTRODUCTION
  397. FIGURE 5.1 One-line diagram of typical primary distribution feeders.
  398. 5.2 RADIAL-TYPE PRIMARY FEEDER
  399. FIGURE 5.2 Radial-type primary feeder.
  400. FIGURE 5.3 Radial-type primary feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches.
  401. 5.3 LOOP-TYPE PRIMARY FEEDER
  402. FIGURE 5.4 Radial-type primary feeder with express feeder and backfeed.
  403. FIGURE 5.5 Radial-type phase-area feeder.
  404. FIGURE 5.6 Loop-type primary feeder.
  405. 5.4 PRIMARY NETWORK
  406. FIGURE 5.7 Primary network.
  407. 5.5 PRIMARY-FEEDER VOLTAGE LEVELS
  408. FIGURE 5.8 Factors affecting primary-feeder voltage-level selection decision.
  409. TABLE 5.1 Typical Primary Voltage Levels
  410. FIGURE 5.9 Illustration of the voltage-square rule and the feeder distance-coverage principle as a function of feeder voltage level and a single load.
  411. FIGURE 5.10 Feeder area-coverage principle as related to feeder voltage and a uniformly distributed load.
  412. 5.6 PRIMARY-FEEDER LOADING
  413. FIGURE 5.11 Factors affecting feeder routing decisions.
  414. FIGURE 5.12 Factors affecting the number of feeders.
  415. FIGURE 5.13 Factors affecting conductor size selection.
  416. 5.7 TIE LINES
  417. 5.8 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER EXIT: RECTANGULAR-TYPE DEVELOPMENT
  418. FIGURE 5.14 One-line diagram of typical two-substation area supply with tie lines.
  419. FIGURE 5.15 Rectangular-type development.
  420. FIGURE 5.16 Rectangular-type development with two transformers, type 1.
  421. FIGURE 5.17 Rectangular-type development with two transformers, type 2.
  422. FIGURE 5.18 Rectangular-type development with three transformers.
  423. FIGURE 5.19 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 1.
  424. FIGURE 5.20 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 2.
  425. FIGURE 5.21 The sequence of installing additional transformers, type 3.
  426. FIGURE 5.22 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 4.
  427. FIGURE 5.23 The sequence of installing additional transformers, type 5.
  428. 5.9 RADIAL-TYPE DEVELOPMENT
  429. 5.10 RADIAL FEEDERS WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
  430. FIGURE 5.24 Radial-type development: (a) type 1, (b) type 2, (c) type 3, and (d) type 4.
  431. FIGURE 5.25 A radial feeder.
  432. FIGURE 5.26 A uniformly distributed main feeder.
  433. 5.11 RADIAL FEEDERS WITH NONUNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
  434. FIGURE 5.27 A uniformly increasing load.
  435. FIGURE 5.28 The sending-end current as a function of the distance along a feeder.
  436. 5.12 APPLICATION OF THE A, B, C, D GENERAL CIRCUIT CONSTANTS TO RADIAL FEEDERS
  437. FIGURE 5.29 A symbolic representation of a line.
  438. FIGURE 5.30 Phasor diagram.
  439. FIGURE 5.31 A radial feeder.
  440. Example 5.1
  441. 5.13 DESIGN OF RADIAL PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
  442. 5.13.1 Overhead Primaries
  443. FIGURE 5.32 An overhead radial distribution system.
  444. 5.13.2 Underground Residential Distribution
  445. FIGURE 5.33 A two-way feed-type underground residential distribution system.
  446. FIGURE 5.34 Single-line diagram of loop-type primary-feeder circuits: (a) with a disconnect switch at each transformer and (b) without a disconnect switch at each transformer.
  447. FIGURE 5.35 A distribution transformer with internal high-voltage fuse and load-break connectors.
  448. FIGURE 5.36 A distribution transformer with internal high-voltage fuses and load-break switches.
  449. Example 5.2
  450. FIGURE 5.37 The “longest” primary circuit.
  451. Example 5.3
  452. TABLE 5.2 Current-Carrying Capacity of XLPE Aerial Cables
  453. Example 5.4
  454. Example 5.5
  455. TABLE 5.3 15 kV Concentric Neutral XLPE-Insulated Al URD Cable
  456. 5.14 PRIMARY SYSTEM COSTS
  457. PROBLEMS
  458. REFERENCES
  459. 6 Design Considerations of Secondary Systems
  460. 6.1 INTRODUCTION
  461. 6.2 SECONDARY VOLTAGE LEVELS
  462. 6.3 PRESENT DESIGN PRACTICE
  463. FIGURE 6.1 One-line diagram of a simple radial secondary system.
  464. 6.4 SECONDARY BANKING
  465. FIGURE 6.2 Two different methods of banking secondaries: (a) type 1 and (b) type 2.
  466. FIGURE 6.3 Two additional methods of banking secondaries: (a) type 3 and (b) type 4.
  467. 6.5 SECONDARY NETWORKS
  468. FIGURE 6.4 One-line diagram of the small segment of a secondary-network system.
  469. 6.5.1 Secondary Mains
  470. 6.5.2 Limiters
  471. FIGURE 6.5 Limiter characteristics in terms of time to fuse versus current and insulation-damage characteristics of the underground-network cables.
  472. 6.5.3 Network Protectors
  473. 6.5.4 High-Voltage Switch
  474. FIGURE 6.6 An ideal coordination of secondary-network overcurrent protection devices.
  475. TABLE 6.1 Required Operation of the Protective Apparatus
  476. 6.5.5 Network Transformers
  477. FIGURE 6.7 High-voltage switch.
  478. 6.5.6 Transformer Application Factor
  479. TABLE 6.2 Standard Ratings for Three-Phase Secondary-Network Transformers Transformer High Voltage
  480. 6.6 SPOT NETWORKS
  481. FIGURE 6.8 Network-transformer application factors as a function of ZM/ZT ratio and number of feeders used.
  482. 6.7 ECONOMIC DESIGN OF SECONDARIES
  483. 6.7.1 Patterns and Some of the Variables
  484. FIGURE 6.9 One-line diagram of the multiple primary system for the John Hancock Center.
  485. FIGURE 6.10 Illustration of a typical pattern.
  486. 6.7.2 Further Assumptions
  487. 6.7.3 General TAC Equation
  488. 6.7.4 Illustrating the Assembly of Cost Data
  489. 6.7.5 Illustrating the Estimation of Circuit Loading
  490. TABLE 6.3 Illustrative Load Data
  491. FIGURE 6.11 Estimated circuit loading for copper-loss determinations.
  492. 6.7.6 Developed Total Annual Cost Equation
  493. 6.7.7 Minimization of the Total Annual Costs
  494. 6.7.8 Other Constraints
  495. Example 6.1
  496. FIGURE 6.12 Residential area lot layout and service arrangement.
  497. FIGURE 6.13 Residential area lot layout and utility easement arrangement.
  498. TABLE 6.4 Load Data for Example 6.1
  499. FIGURE 6.14 Illustration of the SLs.
  500. 6.8 UNBALANCED LOAD AND VOLTAGES
  501. Example 6.2
  502. FIGURE 6.15 An unbalanced single-phase three-wire secondary circuit.
  503. FIGURE 6.16 Vertical spacing between the secondary wires.
  504. Example 6.3
  505. Example 6.4
  506. Example 6.5
  507. FIGURE 6.17
  508. TABLE 6.5 Bus Voltage Value (pu)
  509. 6.9 SECONDARY SYSTEM COSTS
  510. Example 6.6
  511. PROBLEMS
  512. REFERENCES
  513. 7 Voltage-Drop and Power-Loss Calculations
  514. 7.1 THREE-PHASE BALANCED PRIMARY LINES
  515. 7.2 NON-THREE-PHASE PRIMARY LINES
  516. 7.2.1 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Ungrounded Neutral
  517. FIGURE 7.1 Various lateral types that exist in the United States.
  518. 7.2.2 Single-Phase Two-Wire Ungrounded Laterals
  519. 7.2.3 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Multigrounded Common Neutrals
  520. FIGURE 7.2 A single-phase lateral with multigrounded common neutral.
  521. 7.2.4 Two-Phase Plus Neutral (Open-Wye) Laterals
  522. FIGURE 7.3 An open-wye connected lateral.
  523. Example 7.1
  524. Example 7.2
  525. Example 7.3
  526. 7.3 FOUR-WIRE MULTIGROUNDED COMMON NEUTRAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
  527. FIGURE 7.4 A four-wire multigrounded common neutral distribution system.
  528. Example 7.4
  529. FIGURE 7.5 A single-phase circuit.
  530. FIGURE 7.6 Impedance triangle.
  531. Example 7.5
  532. FIGURE 7.7 One-line diagram of a three-phase four-wire secondary system.
  533. Example 7.6
  534. TABLE 7.1 Single-Phase 7200-120/240-V Distribution Transformer Data at 65°C
  535. FIGURE 7.8 Triplexed cable assembly.
  536. FIGURE 7.9 Twin concentric cable assembly.
  537. TABLE 7.2 Twin Concentric Al/Cu XLPE 600 V Cable Data
  538. TABLE 7.3 Load Data
  539. Example 7.7
  540. FIGURE 7.10 Circulation of the secondary-line currents.
  541. Example 7.8
  542. FIGURE 7.11 A residential secondary distribution system.
  543. Example 7.9
  544. FIGURE 7.12 The distribution system of Example 7.9.
  545. Example 7.10
  546. FIGURE 7.13 A square-shaped service area and a lumped-sum load.
  547. Example 7.11
  548. Example 7.12
  549. FIGURE 7.14 The distribution system of Example 7.12.
  550. Example 7.13
  551. Example 7.14
  552. FIGURE 7.15 The distribution system of Example 7.14.
  553. TABLE 7.4 K Constants
  554. 7.4 PERCENT POWER (OR COPPER) LOSS
  555. TABLE 7.5 Conductor I2R Losses, kWh/(mi year), at 7.2/12.5 kV and a Load Factor of 0.6
  556. 7.5 METHOD TO ANALYZE DISTRIBUTION COSTS
  557. 7.5.1 Annual Equivalent of Investment Cost
  558. 7.5.2 Annual Equivalent of Energy Cost
  559. 7.5.3 Annual Equivalent of Demand Cost
  560. 7.5.4 Levelized Annual Cost
  561. FIGURE 7.16 Illustration of the levelized annual cost concept: (a) unlevelized annual cost flow diagram and (b) levelized cost flow diagram.
  562. Example 7.15
  563. TABLE 7.6 Typical ACSR Conductors Used in Rural Areas
  564. TABLE 7.7 Typical ACSR Conductors Used in Urban Areas
  565. FIGURE 7.17 Total annual equivalent cost of ACSR feeders for rural areas in thousands of dollars per mile: (a) 477 cmil, 26 strands, (b) 266.8 cmil, 6 strands, AWG 4/0, and AWG 3/0.
  566. Example 7.16
  567. FIGURE 7.18 Total annual equivalent cost of ACSR feeders for urban areas in thousands of dollars per mile: (a) 477 cmil, 26 strands, (b) AWG 3/0, (c) AWG 1/0, and (d) AWG 4, 7 strands.
  568. Example 7.17
  569. 7.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF EQUIPMENT LOSSES
  570. PROBLEMS
  571. FIGURE P7.1 One-line diagram for Problem 7.1.
  572. FIGURE P7.7 Illustration for Example 7.7.
  573. FIGURE P7.11 Distribution system for Problem 7.11.
  574. REFERENCES
  575. 8 Application of Capacitors to Distribution Systems
  576. 8.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  577. 8.2 POWER CAPACITORS
  578. FIGURE 8.1 A cutaway view of a power factor correction capacitor.
  579. FIGURE 8.2 A typical utilization in a switched pole-top rack.
  580. 8.3 EFFECTS OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
  581. 8.3.1 Series Capacitors
  582. FIGURE 8.3 Voltage phasor diagrams for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c) without and (b) and (d) with series capacitors.
  583. 8.3.1.1 Overcompensation
  584. FIGURE 8.4 Overcompensation of the receiving-end voltage: (a) at normal load and (b) at the start of a large motor.
  585. FIGURE 8.5 Voltage phasor diagram with leading power factor: (a) without series capacitors and (b) with series capacitors.
  586. 8.3.1.2 Leading Power Factor
  587. 8.3.2 Shunt Capacitors
  588. FIGURE 8.6 Voltage phasor diagrams for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c) without and (b) and (d) with shunt capacitors.
  589. Example 8.1
  590. FIGURE 8.7 (a) Phasor diagram and (b) power triangle for a typical distribution load.
  591. 8.4 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
  592. 8.4.1 General
  593. FIGURE 8.8 Illustration of (a) the use of a power triangle for power factor correction by employing capacitive reactive power and (b) the required increase in the apparent and reactive powers as a function of the load power factor, holding the real power of the load constant.
  594. FIGURE 8.9 Illustration of the change in the real and reactive powers as a function of the load power factor, holding the apparent power of the load constant.
  595. FIGURE 8.10 Illustration of power factor correction.
  596. 8.4.2 Concept of Leading and Lagging Power Factors
  597. 8.4.3 Economic Power Factor
  598. FIGURE 8.11 Examples of some of the sources of leading and lagging reactive power at the load.
  599. TABLE 8.1 Power Factor of Load and Source
  600. 8.4.4 Use of a Power Factor Correction Table
  601. 8.4.5 Alternating Cycles of a Magnetic Field
  602. 8.4.6 Power Factor of a Group of Loads
  603. Example 8.2
  604. TABLE 8.2 Determination of kW Multiplies to Calculate kvar Requirement for Power Factor Correction
  605. FIGURE 8.12 For Example 8.2: (a) connection diagram, (b) phasor diagrams of individual loads, and (c) phasor diagram of combined loads.
  606. 8.4.7 Practical Methods Used by the Power Industry for Power Factor Improvement Calculations
  607. Example 8.3
  608. FIGURE 8.13 Illustration of power factor correction using a shunt capacitor in Example 8.3.
  609. Example 8.4
  610. Example 8.5
  611. FIGURE 8.14 Component current diagram.
  612. Example 8.6
  613. 8.4.8 Real Power-Limited Equipment
  614. Example 8.7
  615. Example 8.8
  616. 8.4.9 Computerized Method to Determine the Economic Power Factor
  617. 8.5 APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS
  618. Example 8.9
  619. FIGURE 8.15 Connection of capacitor units for one phase of a three-phase wye-connected bank.
  620. FIGURE 8.16 Secondary capacitor economics considering only savings in distribution transformer cost.
  621. FIGURE 8.17 Capacitor connected (a) in delta and (b) in wye.
  622. Example 8.10
  623. Example 8.11
  624. Example 8.12
  625. Example 8.13
  626. 8.5.1 Capacitor Installation Types
  627. FIGURE 8.18 The effects of a fixed capacitor on the voltage profile of (a) feeder with uniformly distributed load (b) at heavy load and (c) at light load.
  628. FIGURE 8.19 Sizing of the fixed and switched capacitors to meet the daily reactive power demands.
  629. 8.5.2 Types of Controls for Switched Shunt Capacitors
  630. 8.5.3 Types of Three-Phase Capacitor-Bank Connections
  631. FIGURE 8.20 Meeting the reactive power requirements with fixed, voltage-controlled, and time-controlled capacitors.
  632. 8.6 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR CAPACITORS
  633. 8.6.1 Benefits due to Released Generation Capacity
  634. 8.6.2 Benefits due to Released Transmission Capacity
  635. 8.6.3 Benefits due to Released Distribution Substation Capacity
  636. 8.6.4 Benefits due to Reduced Energy Losses
  637. 8.6.5 Benefits due to Reduced Voltage Drops
  638. 8.6.6 Benefits due to Released Feeder Capacity
  639. 8.6.7 Financial Benefits due to Voltage Improvement
  640. TABLE 8.3 Additional kWh Energy Increase After Capacitor Addition
  641. 8.6.8 Total Financial Benefits due to Capacitor Installations
  642. Example 8.19*
  643. TABLE 8.4 For Example 8.19
  644. 8.7 PRACTICAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE BEST CAPACITOR LOCATION
  645. 8.8 MATHEMATICAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMUM CAPACITOR ALLOCATION
  646. FIGURE 8.21 Primary feeder with lumped-sum (or concentrated) and uniformly distributed loads and reactive current profile before adding the capacitor.
  647. 8.8.1 Loss Reduction due to Capacitor Allocation
  648. 8.8.1.1 Case 1: One Capacitor Bank
  649. FIGURE 8.22 Loss reduction with one capacitor bank.
  650. FIGURE 8.23 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with uniformly distributed loads (λ = 0).
  651. FIGURE 8.24 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/4).
  652. FIGURE 8.25 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/2).
  653. FIGURE 8.26 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 3/4).
  654. FIGURE 8.27 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with concentrated loads (λ = 1).
  655. TABLE 8.5 Optimum Location and Optimum Loss Reduction
  656. FIGURE 8.28 Loss reduction due to a capacitor bank located at the optimum location on a line section with various combinations of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads.
  657. 8.8.1.2 Case 2: Two Capacitor Banks
  658. FIGURE 8.29 Loss reduction due to an optimum-sized capacitor bank located on a line segment with various combinations of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads.
  659. 8.8.1.3 Case 3: Three Capacitor Banks
  660. 8.8.1.4 Case 4: Four Capacitor Banks
  661. FIGURE 8.30 Loss reduction with two capacitor banks.
  662. 8.8.1.5 Case 5: n Capacitor Banks
  663. 8.8.2 Optimum Location of a Capacitor Bank
  664. FIGURE 8.31 Loss reduction with three capacitor banks.
  665. FIGURE 8.32 Loss reduction with four capacitor banks.
  666. FIGURE 8.33 Comparison of loss reduction obtainable from n = 1, 2, 3, and ∞ number of capacitor banks, with λ = 0.
  667. FIGURE 8.34 Comparison of loss reduction obtainable from n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and ∞ number of capacitor banks, with λ = 1/4.
  668. 8.8.3 Energy Loss Reduction due to Capacitors
  669. FIGURE 8.35 Relationship between the total capacitor compensation ratio and the reactive load factor for uniformly distributed load (λ = 0 and α = 1).
  670. FIGURE 8.36 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at optimum location
  671. FIGURE 8.37 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
  672. FIGURE 8.38 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
  673. FIGURE 8.39 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
  674. FIGURE 8.40 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
  675. FIGURE 8.41 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with uniformly distributed load (λ = 0).
  676. FIGURE 8.42 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/4).
  677. FIGURE 8.43 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/2).
  678. FIGURE 8.44 Effects of reactive load factors on loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 3/4).
  679. FIGURE 8.45 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a concentrated load (λ = 1).
  680. 8.8.4 Relative Ratings of Multiple Fixed Capacitors
  681. 8.8.5 General Savings Equation for Any Number of Fixed Capacitors
  682. 8.9 FURTHER THOUGHTS ON CAPACITORS AND IMPROVING POWER FACTORS
  683. FIGURE 8.46 Schematic diagram for the use of capacitors to reduce total line current by supplying reactive power locally: (a) without the use of capacitors and (b) with the use of capacitors.
  684. 8.10 CAPACITOR TANK–RUPTURE CONSIDERATIONS
  685. FIGURE 8.47 Time-to-rupture characteristics for 200 kvar 7.2 kV all-film capacitors.
  686. FIGURE 8.48 Capacitor reliability cycle.
  687. 8.11 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
  688. 8.11.1 Ferroresonance
  689. FIGURE 8.49 The LC circuit for ferroresonance.
  690. Example 8.20
  691. 8.11.2 Harmonics on Distribution Systems
  692. FIGURE 8.50 Harmonic analysis of peaked no-load current.
  693. FIGURE 8.51 Harmonic components of transformer exciting current.
  694. TABLE 8.6 The Influence of Three-Phase Transformer Connections on Third Harmonics
  695. FIGURE 8.52 Combinations of fundamental and third-harmonic waves: (a) harmonic in phase, (b) harmonic 90° leading, (c) harmonic in opposition, and (d) harmonic 90° lagging.
  696. PROBLEMS
  697. TABLE P8.5 Summary of Load Flows
  698. REFERENCES
  699. 9 Distribution System Voltage Regulation
  700. 9.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  701. 9.2 QUALITY OF SERVICE AND VOLTAGE STANDARDS
  702. FIGURE 9.1 Illustration of voltage spread on a radial primary feeder: (a) one-line diagram of a feeder circuit, (b) voltage profile at peak-load conditions, and (c) voltage profile at light-load conditions.
  703. TABLE 9.1 Typical Secondary Voltage Standards Applicable to Residential and Commercial Customers
  704. 9.3 VOLTAGE CONTROL
  705. 9.4 FEEDER VOLTAGE REGULATORS
  706. FIGURE 9.2 Typical single-phase 32-step pole-type voltage regulator used for 167 kVA or below.
  707. FIGURE 9.3 One-line diagram of a feeder, indicating the sequence of essential components.
  708. FIGURE 9.4 Typical platform-mounted voltage-regulators. (Siemens-Allis Company.)
  709. FIGURE 9.5 Individual feeder voltage regulation provided by a bank of distribution voltage regulators. (Siemens-Allis Company.)
  710. FIGURE 9.6 Regulator tap controls based on the set voltage, bandwidth, and time delay.
  711. FIGURE 9.7 Features of the control mechanism of a single-phase 32-step voltage regulator. (McGraw-Edison Company, Belleville, NJ.)
  712. FIGURE 9.8 Standard direct-drive tap changer used through 150 kV BIL, above 219 A.
  713. FIGURE 9.9 Four-step auto-booster regulators: (a) 50 A unit and (b) 100 A unit.
  714. 9.5 LINE-DROP COMPENSATION
  715. FIGURE 9.10 Simple schematic diagram and phasor diagram of the control circuit and line-drop compensator circuit of a step or induction voltage regulator.
  716. FIGURE 9.11 Determination of the voltage profiles for (a) peak loads and (b) light loads.
  717. Example 9.1
  718. FIGURE 9.12 The elements of a distribution substation for Example 9.1.
  719. TABLE 9.2 Overloading of Step-Type Feeder Regulators
  720. TABLE 9.3 Some Typical Single-Phase Regulator Sizes
  721. FIGURE 9.13 Feeder voltage profile.
  722. Example 9.2
  723. FIGURE 9.14 Voltage profile for Example 9.2.
  724. Example 9.3
  725. Example 9.4
  726. FIGURE 9.15 Feeder voltage profiles for zero load and for the annual peak load.
  727. TABLE 9.4 For Annual Peak Load
  728. TABLE 9.5 For Annual Peak Load
  729. Example 9.5
  730. TABLE 9.6 Actual Voltages vs. Voltage Criteria at Peak and Zero Loads
  731. TABLE 9.7 Values Obtained
  732. FIGURE 9.16 Voltage profiles.
  733. Example 9.6
  734. Example 9.7
  735. Example 9.8
  736. FIGURE 9.17 One-line diagram of a primary feeder supplying an industrial customer.
  737. Example 9.9
  738. FIGURE 9.18 Optimum location of a capacitor bank.
  739. FIGURE 9.19 Voltage profiles.
  740. Example 9.10
  741. 9.6 DISTRIBUTION CAPACITOR AUTOMATION
  742. FIGURE 9.20 A distribution capacitor automation algorithm switches capacitors on and off remotely and automatically, using voltage information from customer meters and var information from the substation.
  743. 9.7 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
  744. FIGURE 9.21 Permissible voltage-flicker-limit curve.
  745. FIGURE 9.22 Installation of series capacitor to reduce the flicker voltage caused by a fluctuating load.
  746. 9.7.1 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Single-Phase Motor Start
  747. Example 9.11
  748. 9.7.2 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Three-Phase Motor Start
  749. Example 9.12
  750. PROBLEMS
  751. FIGURE P9.10 Figure for Problem 9.10.
  752. TABLE P9.10 Table for Problem P9.10
  753. FIGURE P9.12 Figure for Problem 9.12.
  754. FIGURE P9.13 Figure for Problem 9.13.
  755. REFERENCES
  756. 10 Distribution System Protection
  757. 10.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  758. 10.2 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICES
  759. 10.2.1 Fuses
  760. FIGURE 10.1 Classification of high-voltage fuses.
  761. TABLE 10.1 Interrupting Ratings of Open-Fuse Cutouts
  762. FIGURE 10.2 Typical open-fuse cutout in pole-top style for 7.2/14.4 kV overhead distribution.
  763. FIGURE 10.3 Typical application of open-fuse cutouts in 7.2/14.4 kV overhead distribution.
  764. 10.2.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers
  765. FIGURE 10.4 Typical fuse links used on outdoor distribution: (a) fuse link rated less than 10 A and (b) fuse link rated 10–100 A.
  766. FIGURE 10.5 Minimum-melting-TCC curves for typical (fast) fuse links. Curves are plotted to minimum test points, so all variations should be +20% in current.
  767. FIGURE 10.6 Typical transformer protection application of 34.5 kV SM-type power fuses.
  768. 10.2.3 Automatic Line Sectionalizers
  769. FIGURE 10.7 Feeder protection application of 34.5 kV SM-type power fuses.
  770. FIGURE 10.8 Cutaway view of typical 34.5 kV SM-type refill unit.
  771. TABLE 10.2 Asymmetrical Factors as Function of X/R Ratios
  772. FIGURE 10.9 Typical single-phase hydraulically controlled automatic circuit recloser: (a) type H, 4H, V4H, or L and (b) type D, E, 4E, or DV.
  773. FIGURE 10.10 Typical three-phase hydraulically controlled automatic circuit reclosers: (a) type 6H or V6H and (b) type RV, RVE, RX, RXE, etc.
  774. FIGURE 10.11 Typical three-pole automatic circuit recloser.
  775. FIGURE 10.12 Typical single- and three-phase automatic line sectionalizers: (a) type GH, (b) type GN3, (c) type GN3E, (d) type GV, (e) type GW, and (f) type GWC.
  776. 10.2.4 Automatic Circuit Breakers
  777. FIGURE 10.13 (a) and (b) Typical oil circuit breakers.
  778. FIGURE 10.14 Typical vacuum circuit breaker.
  779. FIGURE 10.15 A typical IAC single-phase overcurrent-relay unit.
  780. FIGURE 10.16 TCC of overcurrent relays.
  781. FIGURE 10.17 Time–current curves of IAC overcurrent relays with inverse characteristics.
  782. 10.3 OBJECTIVE OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PROTECTION
  783. FIGURE 10.18 A distribution feeder protection scheme.
  784. 10.4 COORDINATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES
  785. 10.5 FUSE-TO-FUSE COORDINATION
  786. FIGURE 10.19 Coordinating fuses in series using TCC curves of the fuses connected in series.
  787. 10.6 RECLOSER-TO-RECLOSER COORDINATION
  788. TABLE 10.3 Coordination Table for GE Type “K” (Fast) Fuse Links Used in GE 50, 100, or 200 A Expulsion Fuse Cutouts and Connected in Series
  789. TABLE 10.4 Coordination Table for GE Type “T” (Slow) Fuse Links Used in GE 50, 100, or 200 A Expulsion Fuse Cutouts and Connected in Series
  790. 10.7 RECLOSER-TO-FUSE COORDINATION
  791. FIGURE 10.20 Typical recloser tripping characteristics.
  792. FIGURE 10.21 Recloser TCC curves superimposed on fuse TCC curves.
  793. FIGURE 10.22 Temperature cycle of fuse link during recloser operation.
  794. FIGURE 10.23 Recloser-to-fuse coordination (corrected for heating and cooling cycle).
  795. TABLE 10.5 Automatic Recloser and Fuse Ratings
  796. 10.8 RECLOSER TO SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER HIGH-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION
  797. 10.9 FUSE-TO CIRCUIT-BREAKER COORDINATION
  798. 10.10 RECLOSER-TO-CIRCUIT-BREAKER COORDINATION
  799. Example 10.1
  800. FIGURE 10.24 An example of recloser-to-relay coordination. Curve A represents TCCs of one instantaneous recloser opening. Curve B represents TCCs of one extended time-delay recloser opening. Curve C represents TCCs of the IAC relay.
  801. 10.11 FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS*
  802. 10.11.1 Three-Phase Faults
  803. 10.11.2 Line-to-Line Faults
  804. 10.11.3 Single Line-to-Ground Faults
  805. TABLE 10.6 Estimated Values of the K0 Constant for Various Conditions
  806. 10.11.4 Components of the Associated Impedance to the Fault
  807. FIGURE 10.25 Typical pole-top overhead distribution circuit configuration.
  808. 10.11.5 Sequence-Impedance Tables for the Application of Symmetrical Components
  809. FIGURE 10.26 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a; (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0; and (c) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z″0.
  810. FIGURE 10.27 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a, (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0, and (c) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z″0.
  811. FIGURE 10.28 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0.
  812. Example 10.2
  813. FIGURE 10.29 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a and (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0
  814. FIGURE 10.30 Single-phase overhead pole-top configurations with ground wires: (a) z1φ = z′1φ and (b) z1φ = z″1φ.
  815. TABLE 10.7 Sequence-Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.26, Ω/1000 ft
  816. TABLE 10.8 Sequence-Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.27, Ω/1000 ft
  817. TABLE 10.9 Sequence-Impedance Values for Bare-Aluminum–Steel (AS) Associated with Figure 10.28, Ω/1000 ft
  818. TABLE 10.10 Sequence-Impedance Values for Bare-Aluminum–Steel (AS) Associated with Figure 10.29, Ω/1000 ft
  819. TABLE 10.11 Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.30, Ω/1000 ft
  820. 10.12 FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS IN PER UNITS
  821. Example 10.3
  822. TABLE 10.12 Fault-Current Formulas in Per Units
  823. FIGURE 10.31 A distribution substation.
  824. TABLE 10.13 Results of Example 10.3
  825. 10.13 SECONDARY-SYSTEM FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS
  826. 10.13.1 Single-Phase 120/240 V Three-Wire Secondary Service
  827. FIGURE 10.32 A line-to-ground fault involving line l1 and neutral or line l2 and neutral.
  828. 10.13.2 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Wye–Delta or Delta–Delta Four-Wire Secondary Service
  829. FIGURE 10.33 A wye–delta or delta–delta secondary service. If needed, the wye primary can be replaced with its equivalent delta, as illustrated.
  830. 10.13.3 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Open-Wye Primary and Four-Wire Open-Delta Secondary Service
  831. FIGURE 10.34 An open-wye primary and open-delta secondary service.
  832. FIGURE 10.35 Various fault-current paths in the transformer and associated impedance-transfer ratios.
  833. 10.13.4 Three-Phase 208Y/120 V, 480Y/277 V, or 832Y/480 V Four-Wire Wye–Wye Secondary Service
  834. FIGURE 10.36 A three-phase wye–wye-connected four-wire secondary connection.
  835. Example 10.4
  836. FIGURE 10.37 A single-phase L–L secondary on a 120/240 V three-wire service.
  837. 10.14 HIGH-IMPEDANCE FAULTS
  838. 10.15 LIGHTNING PROTECTION
  839. 10.15.1 A Brief Review of Lightning Phenomenon
  840. FIGURE 10.38 An illustration of the lightning phenomenon.
  841. FIGURE 10.39 The complete process of a lightning flash.
  842. 10.15.2 Lightning Surges
  843. FIGURE 10.40 (a) Induced line charges due to indirect lightning strokes and (b) an occurence of a lightning among clouds.
  844. 10.15.3 Lightning Protection
  845. 10.15.4 Basic Lightning Impulse Level
  846. Example 10.5
  847. Example 10.6
  848. 10.15.5 Determining the Expected Number of Strikes on a Line
  849. FIGURE 10.41 The ground flash density of the United States.
  850. TABLE 10.14 Constant C for REA Standard Pole Lengths
  851. Example 10.7
  852. Example 10.8
  853. Example 10.9
  854. Example 10.10
  855. 10.16 INSULATORS
  856. PROBLEMS
  857. FIGURE P10.1 Distribution circuit of Problem 10.7.
  858. REFERENCES
  859. 11 Distribution System Reliability
  860. 11.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  861. 11.2 NATIONAL ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL
  862. FIGURE 11.1 Regional Electric Reliability Councils.
  863. 11.3 APPROPRIATE LEVELS OF DISTRIBUTION RELIABILITY
  864. TABLE 11.1 Classification of Generic and Specific Causes of Outages
  865. FIGURE 11.2 Classification of reported outage events in the National Electric Reliability Study for the period July 1970–June 1979: (a) types of events, (b) generic subsystems, and (c) generic causes.
  866. FIGURE 11.3 Cumulative duration in minutes to restore reported customer outages.
  867. TABLE 11.2 Detailed Industrial Service Interruption Cost Example
  868. FIGURE 11.4 Cost versus system reliability.
  869. 11.4 BASIC RELIABILITY CONCEPTS AND MATHEMATICS
  870. 11.4.1 General Reliability Function
  871. FIGURE 11.5 A reliability planning procedure.
  872. FIGURE 11.6 The bathtub hazard function.
  873. FIGURE 11.7 Relationship between reliability and unreliability.
  874. 11.4.2 Basic Single-Component Concepts
  875. FIGURE 11.8 Two-state model.
  876. 11.5 SERIES SYSTEMS
  877. 11.5.1 Unrepairable Components in Series
  878. FIGURE 11.9 Block diagram of a series system with two components.
  879. FIGURE 11.10 Block diagram of a series system with n components.
  880. FIGURE 11.11 The reliability of a series system (structure) of n identical components.
  881. Example 11.1
  882. 11.5.2 Repairable Components in Series*
  883. 11.6 PARALLEL SYSTEMS
  884. 11.6.1 Unrepairable Components in Parallel
  885. FIGURE 11.12 Block diagram of a parallel system with two components.
  886. FIGURE 11.13 Block diagram of a parallel system with m components.
  887. 11.6.2 Repairable Components in Parallel*
  888. FIGURE 11.14 The reliability of a parallel system (structure) of n parallel components.
  889. Example 11.2
  890. FIGURE 11.15 A 4 mi long distribution express feeder.
  891. Example 11.3
  892. FIGURE 11.16 A primary system for Example 11.3.
  893. 11.7 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS
  894. FIGURE 11.17 A parallel–series system.
  895. FIGURE 11.18 A series–parallel system.
  896. Example 11.4
  897. FIGURE 11.19 Various combinations of block diagrams: (a) series, (b) parallel–series, (c) mixed parallel, (d) mixed parallel, and (e) series–parallel.
  898. Example 11.5
  899. Example 11.6
  900. FIGURE 11.20 System configuration.
  901. FIGURE 11.21 Imposed system configuration.
  902. TABLE 11.3 Summary of the Computations
  903. 11.8 MARKOV PROCESSES*
  904. FIGURE 11.22 Transition system (a) for a two-state system and (b) for a three-state system.
  905. Example 11.7
  906. FIGURE 11.23 Transition diagram.
  907. Example 11.8
  908. TABLE 11.4 Feeder Outage Data
  909. FIGURE 11.24 Transition diagram.
  910. 11.8.1 Chapman–Kolmogorov Equations
  911. Example 11.9
  912. 11.8.2 Classification of States in Markov Chains
  913. 11.9 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE-TRANSITION MODEL TO DETERMINE THE STEADY-STATE PROBABILITIES
  914. 11.10 DISTRIBUTION RELIABILITY INDICES
  915. 11.11 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION INDICES
  916. 11.11.1 SAIFI
  917. 11.11.2 SAIDI
  918. 11.11.3 CAIDI
  919. 11.11.4 CTAIDI
  920. 11.11.5 CAIFI
  921. 11.11.6 ASAI
  922. 11.11.7 ASIFI
  923. 11.11.8 ASIDI
  924. 11.11.9 CEMIn
  925. 11.12 OTHER INDICES (MOMENTARY)
  926. 11.12.1 MAIFI
  927. 11.12.2 MAIFIE
  928. 11.12.3 CEMSMIn
  929. 11.13 LOAD- AND ENERGY-BASED INDICES
  930. 11.13.1 ENS
  931. 11.13.2 AENS
  932. 11.13.3 ACCI
  933. Example 11.10
  934. TABLE 11.5 Distribution System Data of GMEU Company
  935. TABLE 11.6 Annual Interruption Effects
  936. 11.14 USAGE OF RELIABILITY INDICES
  937. 11.15 BENEFITS OF RELIABILITY MODELING IN SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
  938. 11.16 ECONOMICS OF RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
  939. PROBLEMS
  940. FIGURE P11.12 Various system configurations: (a) in series, (b) in series and parallel, (c) in parallel, and (d) in parallel and series, connections.
  941. FIGURE P11.13 Various system configurations: (a) series connections of number of combinations, and (b) the same as (a) but with different reliabilities.
  942. FIGURE P11.14 System configuration for Problem 11.14.
  943. TABLE P11.29A Distribution System Data
  944. TABLE P11.29B Annual Interruption Effects
  945. TABLE P11.30A Component Data for the Radial Feeder
  946. TABLE P11.30B Distribution System Data
  947. TABLE P11.30C Additional Distribution System Data
  948. REFERENCES
  949. 12 Electric Power Quality
  950. 12.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  951. 12.2 DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
  952. 12.3 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER QUALITY
  953. TABLE 12.1 Classification of Electromagnetic Disturbances according to IEC
  954. 12.4 TYPES OF DISTURBANCES
  955. 12.4.1 Harmonic Distortion
  956. TABLE 12.2 Categories and Characteristics of Power System Electromagnetic Phenomena
  957. FIGURE 12.1 Various types of disturbances: (a) harmonic distortion, (b) noise, (c) notches, (d) sag, (e) swell, and (f) surge.
  958. TABLE 12.3 Sources and Characteristics of Surge Voltages in Primary and Secondary Distribution Circuits
  959. FIGURE 12.2 Various transients.
  960. 12.4.2 CBEMA and ITI Curves
  961. FIGURE 12.3 CBEMA curve.
  962. FIGURE 12.4 ITI curve.
  963. 12.5 MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
  964. 12.5.1 RMS Voltage and Current
  965. 12.5.2 Distribution Factors
  966. 12.5.3 Active (Real) and Reactive Power
  967. 12.5.4 Apparent Power
  968. 12.5.5 Power Factor
  969. 12.5.6 Current and Voltage Crest Factors
  970. Example 12.1
  971. 12.5.7 Telephone Interference and the I · T Product
  972. TABLE 12.4 Standard Telephone Interference Weighting Factors
  973. TABLE 12.5 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits for Harmonic Voltage Distortion in Percent at PCC
  974. Example 12.2
  975. Example 12.3
  976. 12.6 POWER IN PASSIVE ELEMENTS
  977. 12.6.1 Power in a Pure Resistance
  978. 12.6.2 Power in a Pure Inductance
  979. 12.6.3 Power in a Pure Capacitance
  980. 12.7 HARMONIC DISTORTION LIMITS
  981. 12.7.1 Voltage Distortion Limits
  982. 12.7.2 Current Distortion Limits
  983. FIGURE 12.5 Selection of PCC.
  984. TABLE 12.6 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (120 V–69 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
  985. TABLE 12.7 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (69–161 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
  986. TABLE 12.8 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (above 161 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
  987. 12.8 EFFECTS OF HARMONICS
  988. TABLE 12.9 Comparison of Sensing Techniques for Various Waveforms
  989. 12.9 SOURCES OF HARMONICS
  990. FIGURE 12.6 Representation of a nonlinear load.
  991. FIGURE 12.7 General flow of harmonic currents in a radial power system: (a) without power capacitors and (b) with power capacitors.
  992. 12.10 DERATING TRANSFORMERS
  993. 12.10.1 K-Factor
  994. 12.10.2 Transformer Derating
  995. Example 12.4
  996. TABLE 12.10 Typical Values of Pec-r
  997. TABLE 12.11 The Results of Example 12.4, Part (a)
  998. 12.11 NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR OVERLOADING
  999. Example 12.5
  1000. Example 12.6
  1001. 12.12 CAPACITOR BANKS AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
  1002. FIGURE 12.8 Power triangle for a PF correction capacitor bank.
  1003. 12.13 SHORT-CIRCUIT CAPACITY OR MVA
  1004. 12.14 SYSTEM RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
  1005. 12.14.1 System Impedance
  1006. 12.14.2 Capacitor Impedance
  1007. 12.15 BUS VOLTAGE RISE AND RESONANCE
  1008. FIGURE 12.9 Power system with shunt switched capacitor.
  1009. Example 12.7
  1010. 12.16 HARMONIC AMPLIFICATION
  1011. FIGURE 12.10 Capacitor switching.
  1012. Example 12.8
  1013. 12.17 RESONANCE
  1014. 12.17.1 Series Resonance
  1015. FIGURE 12.11 Resonance circuits for (a) series resonance and (b) parallel resonance.
  1016. Example 12.9
  1017. 12.17.2 Parallel Resonance
  1018. Example 12.10
  1019. 12.17.3 Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
  1020. Example 12.11
  1021. 12.17.4 Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
  1022. FIGURE 12.12 Practical examples of resonance circuits: (a) series resonance circuit, (b) its equivalent circuit, (c) parallel resonance circuit, and (d) its equivalent circuit.
  1023. FIGURE 12.13 Parallel resonance considerations: (a) a parallel resonance prone system, (b) its equivalent circuit, (c) effects of capacitor sizes, and (d) effects of resistive loads.
  1024. Example 12.12
  1025. 12.18 HARMONIC CONTROL SOLUTIONS
  1026. 12.18.1 Passive Filters
  1027. FIGURE 12.14 Common passive filter configurations: (a) type I, (b) type II, (c) type III, and (d) type IV.
  1028. FIGURE 12.15 A typical 480 V single-tuned wye- or delta-connected filter configurations.
  1029. FIGURE 12.16 General procedure for designing individually tuned filter steps for harmonic control.
  1030. Example 12.13
  1031. TABLE 12.12 Harmonic Filter Design Spreadsheet for Example 12.13
  1032. 12.18.2 Active Filters
  1033. 12.19 HARMONIC FILTER DESIGN
  1034. 12.19.1 Series-Tuned Filters
  1035. Example 12.14
  1036. Example 12.15
  1037. 12.19.2 Second-Order Damped Filters
  1038. Example 12.16
  1039. Example 12.17
  1040. 12.20 LOAD MODELING IN THE PRESENCE OF HARMONICS
  1041. 12.20.1 Impedance in the Presence of Harmonics
  1042. 12.20.2 Skin Effect
  1043. 12.20.3 Load Models
  1044. Example 12.18
  1045. PROBLEMS
  1046. TABLE P12.5 The Output of the Harmonic Analyzer
  1047. REFERENCES
  1048. 13 Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy
  1049. 13.1 INTRODUCTION
  1050. 13.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY
  1051. 13.3 IMPACT OF DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
  1052. 13.4 INTEGRATING RENEWABLES INTO POWER SYSTEMS
  1053. FIGURE 13.1 Connecting DSGs into utility system.
  1054. 13.5 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
  1055. 13.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY PENETRATION
  1056. 13.7 ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
  1057. 13.8 CONCEPT OF MICROGRID
  1058. FIGURE 13.2 A typical microgrid connection scheme.
  1059. 13.9 WIND ENERGY AND WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM
  1060. TABLE 13.1 Installed Wind Power Capacity Worldwide, as of 2009
  1061. FIGURE 13.3 Solar and wind applications in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany.
  1062. FIGURE 13.4 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany.
  1063. 13.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
  1064. 13.9.2 Advantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
  1065. 13.9.3 Disadvantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
  1066. 13.9.4 Categories of Wind Turbines
  1067. FIGURE 13.5 Horizontal-axis three-blade wind energy.
  1068. FIGURE 13.6 Overview of differential types of wind energy converters.
  1069. FIGURE 13.7 Eight categories of wind turbines used in the Altamont Pass in California.
  1070. FIGURE 13.8 Major components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine.
  1071. 13.9.5 Types of Generators Used in Wind Turbines
  1072. FIGURE 13.9 Block diagram of a WECS: (a) using a dc generator, (b) using a synchronous alternator, and (c) using induction generator.
  1073. FIGURE 13.10 Variable-speed pitch-regulated wind turbine.
  1074. 13.9.6 Wind Turbine Operating Systems
  1075. 13.9.6.1 Constant-Speed Wind Turbines
  1076. 13.9.6.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines
  1077. 13.9.7 Meteorology of Wind
  1078. Example 13.1
  1079. FIGURE 13.11 Pressure variations with altitude for US standard atmosphere.
  1080. 13.9.7.1 Power in the Wind
  1081. FIGURE 13.12 TSR diagrams for various types of wind energy converters. (The power coefficient gives a measure of how large a share of the wind’s power a turbine can utilize. The theoretical maximum of the value is 16/27 = 0.5926. The diagram shows the relation between TSR and power coefficient for different types of wind turbines: (a) windmill, (b) modern turbine with three blades, (c) vertical-axis Darrieus turbine, and (d) modern turbine with two blades.)
  1082. Example 13.2
  1083. 13.9.8 Effects of a Wind Force
  1084. 13.9.9 Impact of Tower Height on Wind Power
  1085. TABLE 13.2 Roughness Coefficient for Various Class Types of Terrain
  1086. Example 13.3
  1087. Example 13.4
  1088. 13.9.10 Wind Measurements
  1089. Example 13.5
  1090. 13.9.11 Characteristics of a Wind Generator
  1091. FIGURE 13.13 A typical power curve for a wind turbine.
  1092. Example 13.6
  1093. 13.9.12 Efficiency and Performance
  1094. Example 13.7
  1095. TABLE 13.3 Development of Wind Turbine Size, 1980–2005
  1096. Example 13.8
  1097. Example 13.9
  1098. 13.9.13 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
  1099. 13.9.13.1 Generator Efficiency
  1100. TABLE 13.4 Generator Efficiency
  1101. TABLE 13.5 Relationship between Size and Efficiency
  1102. 13.9.13.2 Gearbox
  1103. 13.9.13.3 Overall Efficiency
  1104. 13.9.13.4 Other Factors to Define the Efficiency
  1105. Example 13.10
  1106. 13.9.14 Grid Connection
  1107. 13.9.15 Some Further Issues Related to Wind Energy
  1108. 13.9.16 Development of Transmission System for Wind Energy in the United States
  1109. 13.9.17 Energy Storage
  1110. 13.9.18 Wind Power Forecasting
  1111. 13.10 SOLAR ENERGY
  1112. 13.10.1 Solar Energy Systems
  1113. FIGURE 13.14 Wind and solar application in the city of Huleka in South Africa. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1114. FIGURE 13.15 Solar applications on the roof of Oregon State Capital, Salem, Oregon, United States. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1115. FIGURE 13.16 Solar installations at Montalto di Castro in Italy. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1116. FIGURE 13.17 Solar applications on the rooftop of a barn in Bayern, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1117. FIGURE 13.18 Solar module used in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1118. FIGURE 13.19 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1119. 13.10.2 Crystalline Silicon
  1120. FIGURE 13.20 Solar applications on a building in the city of Laatzen in the state of Niedersachsen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1121. FIGURE 13.21 Solar applications in a sports stadium in the city of Mainz in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1122. FIGURE 13.22 Solar application in a German school in San Salvador. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1123. FIGURE 13.23 Solar rooftop applications in the state of Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1124. FIGURE 13.24 Typical 3 in. diameter cell.
  1125. FIGURE 13.25 Typical I–V characteristic for a PV cell.
  1126. Example 13.11
  1127. Example 13.12
  1128. Example 13.13
  1129. Example 13.14
  1130. Example 13.15
  1131. Example 13.16
  1132. 13.10.3 Effect of Sunlight on Solar Cell’s Performance
  1133. TABLE 13.6 Latitudes of Selected Cities around the World
  1134. Example 13.17
  1135. FIGURE 13.26 Solution for Example 13.17.
  1136. 13.10.4 Effects of Changing Strength of the Sun on a Solar Cell
  1137. Example 13.18
  1138. FIGURE 13.27 Variation of I–V characteristic of a solar cell due to changing power density.
  1139. TABLE 13.7 Data for Example 13.19
  1140. Example 13.19
  1141. 13.10.5 Temperature’s Effect on Cell Characteristics
  1142. Example 13.20
  1143. 13.10.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells
  1144. Example 13.21
  1145. 13.10.7 Interconnection of Solar Cells
  1146. Example 13.22
  1147. FIGURE 13.28 Connection of 12 identical cells.
  1148. FIGURE 13.29 Panel arrangement for Example 13.22.
  1149. 13.10.8 Overall System Configuration
  1150. FIGURE 13.30 Two fundamental solar generator configurations: (a) stand-alone system and (b) supplemental or cogeneration system.
  1151. FIGURE 13.31 Solar module used in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology.)
  1152. Example 13.23
  1153. FIGURE 13.32 Installation of solar panels in Example 13.23.
  1154. 13.10.9 Thin-Film PV
  1155. 13.10.10 Concentrating PV
  1156. 13.10.11 PV Balance of Systems
  1157. 13.10.12 Types of Conversion Technologies
  1158. FIGURE 13.33 Solar applications in a sports stadium in the city of Mainz in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1159. FIGURE 13.34 Solar application in the INECO airport in the city of Valencia, Spain. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1160. 13.10.13 Linear CSP Systems
  1161. 13.10.14 Power Tower CSP Systems
  1162. 13.10.15 Dish/Engine CSP Systems
  1163. 13.10.16 PV Applications
  1164. 13.10.16.1 Utility-Interactive PV Systems
  1165. 13.10.16.2 Stand-Alone PV Systems
  1166. PROBLEMS
  1167. TABLE P17.1 Necessary Energy Data for the Cottage
  1168. REFERENCES
  1169. GENERAL REFERENCES
  1170. 14 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Power Utility Systems
  1171. 14.1 INTRODUCTION*
  1172. 14.2 STORAGE SYSTEMS
  1173. 14.3 STORAGE DEVICES
  1174. FIGURE 14.1 Comparison of storage technologies.
  1175. 14.3.1 Large Hydro
  1176. 14.3.2 Compressed Air Storage
  1177. 14.3.3 Pumped Hydro
  1178. 14.3.4 Hydrogen
  1179. 14.3.5 High-Power Flywheels
  1180. 14.3.6 High-Power Flow Batteries
  1181. 14.3.7 High-Power Supercapacitors
  1182. 14.3.8 Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage
  1183. 14.3.9 Heat or Cold Storage
  1184. FIGURE 14.2 SMES unit with double GTO thyristor bridge.
  1185. 14.4 BATTERY TYPES
  1186. 14.4.1 Secondary Batteries
  1187. FIGURE 14.3 The trend of exponential improvement in battery performance.
  1188. 14.4.2 Sodium–Sulfur Batteries
  1189. 14.4.3 Flow Battery Technology
  1190. 14.4.3.1 Zinc–Bromine Flow Battery
  1191. 14.4.3.2 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
  1192. 14.4.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries
  1193. 14.4.4.1 Lithium–Titanate Batteries
  1194. 14.4.4.2 Lithium Ion Phosphate Batteries
  1195. 14.4.5 Lead–Acid Batteries
  1196. 14.4.5.1 Advanced Lead–Acid Batteries
  1197. 14.4.6 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries
  1198. 14.5 OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS IN BATTERY USAGE
  1199. 14.6 FUEL CELLS
  1200. FIGURE 14.4 A block diagram of a fuel cell system.
  1201. FIGURE 14.5 Flows and reactions in a fuel cell.
  1202. 14.6.1 Types of Fuel Cells
  1203. 14.6.1.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
  1204. TABLE 14.1 Brief Comparison of Five Fuel Cell Technologies
  1205. 14.6.1.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
  1206. 14.6.1.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
  1207. 14.6.1.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
  1208. REFERENCES
  1209. 15 Concept of Smart Grid and Its Applications
  1210. 15.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
  1211. 15.2 INTRODUCTION
  1212. FIGURE 15.1 The conceptual representation of the smart grid network framework of NIST.
  1213. FIGURE 15.2 The representation of a smart grid as a tree.
  1214. 15.3 NEED FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF SMART GRID
  1215. FIGURE 15.3 Legacy systems (today’s electric grid).
  1216. FIGURE 15.4 2007 electric generation by source.
  1217. TABLE 15.1 Comparison of the Features of the Smart Grid with the Existing Grid
  1218. FIGURE 15.5 Solar and wind applications in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1219. FIGURE 15.6 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1220. FIGURE 15.7 Solar installations in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1221. FIGURE 15.8 Solar applications on the roof of Munich Temple in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1222. FIGURE 15.9 Solar application in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1223. 15.4 SMART GRID APPLICATIONS VERSUS BUSINESS OBJECTIVES
  1224. Example 15.1
  1225. Example 15.2
  1226. Example 15.3
  1227. 15.5 ROOTS OF THE MOTIVATION FOR THE SMART GRID
  1228. TABLE 15.2 Enabled Applications
  1229. TABLE 15.3 Smart Grid Applications
  1230. FIGURE 15.10 Application of Ethernet TCP/IP sensors, transducers, and communication protocol for load control.
  1231. 15.6 DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION
  1232. FIGURE 15.11 Tasks involved in the distribution level automation (at the MV level).
  1233. FIGURE 15.12 The tasks involved in the distribution system monitoring.
  1234. FIGURE 15.13 The tasks of an AMI.
  1235. FIGURE 15.14 An illustration for how to control volt/var flows related to a distribution primary line using the individual, independent, stand-alone volt/var regulating equipment under the traditional VVC approach.
  1236. 15.7 ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
  1237. FIGURE 15.15 Solar applications in Bruchweg stadium- FSV Mainz 05, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1238. FIGURE 15.16 Solar applications in the state of Crevillente in Spain. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1239. FIGURE 15.17 Solar applications in Montalto di Castro in Italy. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
  1240. 15.8 INTEGRATION OF SMART GRID WITH DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
  1241. FIGURE 15.18 Integration of the existing DMS with smart grid.
  1242. 15.9 VOLT/VAR CONTROL IN DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
  1243. 15.9.1 Traditional Approach to Volt/VAR Control in the Distribution Networks
  1244. Example 15.4
  1245. 15.9.2 SCADA Approach to Control Volt/VAR in the Distribution Networks
  1246. Example 15.5
  1247. FIGURE 15.19 Var dispatch components of a SCADA system.
  1248. FIGURE 15.20 Var dispatch rules applied (and no action is required).
  1249. FIGURE 15.21 The capacitor bank is switched on.
  1250. FIGURE 15.22 Change in reactive power is detected, and the capacitor bank is switched off.
  1251. 15.9.3 Integrated Volt/VAR Control Optimization
  1252. Example 15.6
  1253. FIGURE 15.23 VVO system configuration.
  1254. 15.10 EXISTING ELECTRIC POWER GRID
  1255. 15.11 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION
  1256. FIGURE 15.24 SCADA.
  1257. 15.12 ADVANCED SCADA CONCEPTS
  1258. FIGURE 15.25 SCADA in a virtual system established by a WAN.
  1259. 15.12.1 Substation Controllers
  1260. 15.13 ADVANCED DEVELOPMENTS FOR INTEGRATED SUBSTATION AUTOMATION
  1261. FIGURE 15.26 Substation controller.
  1262. FIGURE 15.27 Configuration of SA system.
  1263. 15.14 EVOLUTION OF SMART GRID
  1264. FIGURE 15.28 The evolution of smart grid as a function of return-on-investment versus time.
  1265. FIGURE 15.29 Return on investments for a smart grid.
  1266. FIGURE 15.30 The additional steps that are necessary to achieve the VVO.
  1267. 15.15 SMART MICROGRIDS
  1268. FIGURE 15.31 The dc and ac schematics of an MRG energy DG system.
  1269. FIGURE 15.32 The ac schematics of an MRG energy DG system.
  1270. 15.16 TOPOLOGY OF A MICROGRID
  1271. FIGURE 15.33 The topology of a smart microgrid with required microgrid components.
  1272. 15.17 FUTURE OF A SMART GRID
  1273. FIGURE 15.34 The envisioned smart grid of the future.
  1274. 15.18 STANDARDS OF SMART GRIDS
  1275. FIGURE 15.35 Development of standards for the smart grid.
  1276. FIGURE 15.36 The application of IEC 61850 and CIM to a substation environment.
  1277. FIGURE 15.37 Developing the CIM for distribution applications as well as its application to the field operations.
  1278. 15.19 ASSET MANAGEMENT
  1279. FIGURE 15.38 The IEC 61968 IRM showing activity diagrams and sequence diagrams that are organized by the IRM.
  1280. 15.20 EXISTING CHALLENGES TO THE APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF SMART GRIDS
  1281. 15.21 EVOLUTION OF SMART GRID
  1282. FIGURE 15.39 Illustrates the possible future application of the smart grid concept at the substation level as well as between substations.
  1283. FIGURE 15.40 Present and future research areas in smart grid applications.
  1284. REFERENCES
  1285. Back Matter
  1286. Appendix A: Impedance Tables for Lines, Transformers, and Underground Cables
  1287. TABLE A.1 Characteristics of Copper Conductors, Hard-Drawn, 97.3% Conductivity
  1288. TABLE A.2 Characteristics of Anaconda Hollow Copper Conductors
  1289. TABLE A.3 Characteristics of General Cable Type HH Hollow Copper Conductors
  1290. TABLE A.4 Characteristics of Alcoa Aluminum Conductors, Hard-Drawn, 61% Conductivity
  1291. TABLE A.5 Characteristics of Aluminum Cable, Steel Reinforced (Aluminum Company of America)
  1292. TABLE A.6 Characteristics of “Expanded” Aluminum Cable, Steel Reinforced (Aluminum Company of America)
  1293. TABLE A.7 Characteristics of Copperweld Copper Conductors
  1294. TABLE A.8 Characteristics of Copperweld Conductors
  1295. TABLE A.9 Electrical Characteristics of Overhead Ground Wires
  1296. TABLE A.10 Inductive Reactance Spacing Factor Xd, Ω/(Conductor mi), at 60 Hz
  1297. TABLE A.11 Zero-Sequence Resistive and Inductive Factors Ω/(Conductor · mi)
  1298. TABLE A.12 Shunt Capacitive Reactance Spacing Factor x′d (MΩ/Conductor · mi), at 60 Hz
  1299. TABLE A.13 Zero-Sequence Shunt Capacitive Reactance Factor x′0, MΩ/(Conductor · mi)
  1300. TABLE A.14 Standard Impedances of Distribution Transformers
  1301. TABLE A.15 Standard Impedances for Power Transformers 10,000 kVA and below
  1302. TABLE A.16 Standard Impedance Limits for Power Transformers Above 10,000 kVA
  1303. TABLE A.17 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Belted Paper-Insulated Cables
  1304. TABLE A.18 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Shielded Paper-Insulated Cables
  1305. TABLE A.19 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Oil-Filled Paper-Insulated Cables
  1306. TABLE A.20 60 Hz Characteristics of Single-Conductor Concentric-Strand Paper-Insulated Cables
  1307. TABLE A.21 60 Hz Characteristics of Single-Conductor Oil-Filled (Hollow-Core) Paper-Insulated Cables
  1308. TABLE A.22 Current-Carrying Capacity of Three-Conductor Belted Paper-Insulated Cables
  1309. TABLE A.23 Current-Carrying Capacity of Three-Conductor Shielded Paper-Insulated Cables
  1310. TABLE A.24 Current-Carrying Capacity of Single-Conductor Solid Paper-Insulated Cables
  1311. TABLE A.25 60 Hz Characteristics of Self-Supporting Rubber-Insulated Neoprene-Jacketed Aerial Cable
  1312. REFERENCES
  1313. Appendix B: Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
  1314. TABLE B.1 Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
  1315. Appendix C: Standard Device Numbers Used in Protection Systems
  1316. Appendix D: The Per-Unit System
  1317. D.1 INTRODUCTION
  1318. D.2 SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM
  1319. Example D.1
  1320. Example D.2
  1321. D.3 CONVERTING FROM PER-UNIT VALUES TO PHYSICAL VALUES
  1322. D.4 CHANGE OF BASE
  1323. Example D.3
  1324. D.5 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
  1325. Example D.4
  1326. Example D.5
  1327. Example D.6
  1328. Example D.7
  1329. TABLE D.1 Results of Example D.7
  1330. PROBLEMS
  1331. Appendix E: Glossary for Distribution System Terminology
  1332. REFERENCES
  1333. Notation
  1334. Answers to Selected Problems
  1335. Chapter 2
  1336. Chapter 3
  1337. Chapter 4
  1338. Chapter 5
  1339. Chapter 6
  1340. Chapter 7
  1341. Chapter 8
  1342. Chapter 9
  1343. Chapter 10
  1344. Chapter 11
  1345. Index

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