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Test Bank for Color Textbook of Histology, 3rd Edition: Leslie P. Gartner

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This is completed downloadable of Test Bank for Color Textbook of Histology, 3rd Edition: Leslie P. Gartner

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ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0323045502
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1416029458
Author: Leslie P. Gartner

Concise, current, and richly illustrated, this one-of-a-kind text encompasses cellular and molecular biological concepts as well as classical morphology to present histology from a functional perspective. A wealth of superb illustrations – including light and electron micrographs as well as schematic diagrams and three-dimensional drawings – make all concepts easy to understand, and clinical correlations underscore the practical relevance of the material. Helpful tables and summary statements summarize vital information at a glance. Thoroughly updated to reflect all of the latest concepts and advances in the field, this third edition also includes full-text online access via www.studentconsult.com, where you’ll find a wealth of supplemental tools to facilitate study and exam preparation.

Features an abundance of illustrations, including micrographs, diagrams, drawings, and tables that clarify essential information.
Provides clinical considerations in each chapter when appropriate.
Key terms are bold face and chapter summaries alert students to important content.
Provides a comprehensive cross-referenced index for easy location of needed information.

Comes with STUDENT CONSULT – enabling you to access the complete contents of the book at www.studentconsult.com, perform sophisticated searches, and take personal notes online · enhance your learning by completing 100 USMLE-style review questions and answers · follow “Integration Links” to bonus content from other STUDENT CONSULT titles · clip and download content to your handheld device · and much more.
Contains a set of PowerPoint™ slides on CD-ROM, prepared by the authors, that offers you a convenient way to review the most essential information from the text.
Offers more light micrographs and electron micrographs than ever before – with an increased number of labels in each micrograph to completely identify all of the features represented.
Provides an increased focus on molecular biology.
Delivers more clinical correlations throughout to more thoroughly demonstrate clinical implications.

Table contents:

Table 1–1 Common Histological Stains and Reactions
Digital Imaging Techniques
Interpretation of Microscopic Sections
Advanced Visualization Procedures
Histochemistry
Figure 1–1 Comparison of light, transmission electron, and scanning electron microscopes.
Figure 1–2 Histology requires a mental reconstruction of two-dimensional images into the three-dimensional solid from which they were sectioned. Here, a curved tube is sectioned in various planes to illustrate the relationship between a series of two-dimensional sections and their three-dimensional structure.
Figure 1–3 Direct and indirect methods of immunocytochemistry. Left, An antibody against the antigen was labeled with a fluorescent dye and viewed with a fluorescent microscope. The fluorescence occurs only over the location of the antibody. Right, Fluorescent-labeled antibodies are prepared against an antibody that reacts with a particular antigen. When viewed with fluorescent microscopy, the region of fluorescence represents the location of the antibody.
Immunocytochemistry
Autoradiography
Figure 1–4 Example of direct immunocytochemistry. Cultured neurons from rat superior cervical ganglion were immunostained with fluorescent-labeled antibody specific for the insulin receptor. The bright areas correspond to sites where the antibody has bound to insulin receptors. The staining pattern indicates that receptors are located throughout the cytoplasm of the soma and processes but are missing from the nucleus.
Figure 1–5 Indirect immunocytochemistry. Fluorescent antibodies were prepared against primary antibodies against type IV collagen, to demonstrate the presence of a continuous basal lamina at the interface between malignant clusters of cells and the surrounding connective tissue.
Figure 1–6 Autoradiography. Light microscopic examination of tritiated proline incorporation into the basement membrane as a function of time subsequent to tritiated proline injection (scale bar = 10 μ). In light micrographs A to C, the silver grains (black dots) are localized mostly in the endodermal cells; after 8 hours (light micrograph D), however, the silver grains are also localized in the basement membrane. The presence of silver grains indicates the location of tritiated proline.
CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Figure 1–7 Autoradiography. In this electron micrograph of a yolk sac endodermal cell, silver grains (similar to those in Figure 1–6), representing the presence of tritiated proline, are evident overlying the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), Golgi apparatus (G), and secretory granules (SG). Type IV collagen, which is rich in proline, is synthesized in endodermal cells and released into the basement membrane. The tritiated proline is most concentrated in organelles involved in protein synthesis. M, mitochondria; N, nucleus.
Figure 1–8 Confocal microscopy. A laser beam passes through a dichroic mirror to be focused on the specimen by two motorized mirrors whose movements are computer-controlled to scan the beam along the sample. The light emerging from the pinhole at any particular moment in time represents a single point in the sample, and as the laser beam scans across the sample additional individual points are collected by the photomultiplier tube. All the points are computer-assembled to produce the final confocal image.
Figure 1–9 Confocal image of a metaphase Kangaroo rat cell (PtK2) stained with FITC-phalloidin for F-actin (green) and propidium iodide for chromosomes (red).
Freeze-Fracture Technique
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Figure 1–10 Cytochemistry and freeze-fracture. Fracture-label replica of an acinar cell of the rat pancreas. N-acetyl-D-galactosamine residues were localized by the use of Helix pomatia lectin-gold complex, which appears as black dots in the image. Arrowheads indicate cell membranes. The nucleus (Nu) appears as a depression, the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) as parallel lines, and secretory granules as small elevations or depressions. The elevations (G) represent the E-face half, and the depressions (asterisks) represent the P-face of the membrane of the secretory granule. m, mitochondria.
Chapter 2 Cytoplasm
ORGANELLES
Cell Membrane
Figure 2–1 Light micrograph of typical cells from the renal cortex of a monkey (×975). Note the blue nucleus (N) and the pink cytoplasm. The boundaries of individual cells may be easily distinguished. The white area in the middle of the field is the lumen (L) of a collecting tubule.
Figure 2–2 Purkinje cells (PC) from the cerebellum of a monkey (×540). Observe the long, branching processes, dendrites (D), and axon (A), of these cells. The nucleus is located in the widest portion of the cell.
Molecular Composition
Figure 2–3 Motor neurons from the human spinal cord (×540). These nerve cells have numerous processes (axons and dendrites). The centrally placed nucleus and the single large nucleolus are clearly visible. The Nissl bodies (N; rough endoplasmic reticulum) are the most conspicuous features of the cytoplasm. Observe also the small nuclei of the neuroglia cells (Ng).
Figure 2–4 Goblet cells (G) from the monkey colon (×540). Some cells, such as goblet cells, specialize in secreting materials. These cells accumulate mucinogen, which occupies much of the cells’ volume, and then release it into the lumen (L) of the intestine. During the processing of the tissue, the mucinogen is extracted, leaving behind empty spaces. Observe the presence of a mast cell (Ma).
Figure 2–5 Three-dimensional illustration of an idealized cell, as visualized by transmission electron microscopy. Various organelles and cytoskeletal elements are displayed.
Figure 2–6 Electron micrograph of an acinar cell from the urethral gland of a mouse illustrating the appearance of some organelles (×11,327). CM, cell membrane; G, Golgi apparatus; M, mitochondria; N, nucleus; RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum; SG, secretory granules; U, nucleolus.
Figure 2–7 Electron micrograph showing a junction between two cells that demonstrates the trilaminar structures of the two cell membranes (×240,000).
Figure 2–8 A fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.
Figure 2–9 The E-face and the P-face of the cell membrane.
Glycocalyx
Membrane Transport Proteins
Figure 2–10 Freeze-fracture replica of a cell membrane (×168,000). The E-face (right) is closer to the extracellular space, and the P-face (left) is closer to the protoplasm. Note that the integral proteins are more numerous on the P-face than on the E-face side.
Channel Proteins
VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS
Figure 2–11 Types of transport. A, Passive transport: facilitated diffusion, which includes ion channel-mediated diffusion and carrier-mediated diffusion. B, Active transport: coupled transport.
LIGAND-GATED CHANNELS
MECHANICALLY-GATED CHANNELS
G-PROTEIN–GATED ION CHANNELS
UNGATED CHANNELS
AQUAPORINS
Carrier Proteins
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT BY THE NA+-K+ PUMP
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT BY COUPLED CARRIER PROTEINS
Cell Signaling
Signaling Molecules
Cell-Surface Receptors
ENZYME-LINKED RECEPTORS
G-PROTEIN–LINKED RECEPTORS
Signaling via GS and GI Proteins
Figure 2–12 G-protein–linked receptor. When the signaling molecule contacts its receptor, the a subunit dissociates from the G protein and contacts and activates adenylate cyclase, which converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). GDP, guanosine disphosphate; GTP, guanosine triphosphate; PPi, pyrophosphate.
Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate As a Second Messenger
Signaling via Go Protein
Protein Synthetic and Packaging Machinery of the Cell
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Figure 2–13 Electron micrograph of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the human suprarenal cortex.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Polyribosomes
Protein Synthesis (Translation)
Synthesis of Cytosolic Proteins
Figure 2–14 Electron micrograph of bound polysome. Arrowheads indicate rough endoplasmic reticulum; arrows indicate ribosomes; asterisks indicate cisternae; M, mitochondrion; mt, microtubule.
Synthesis of Proteins on the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Figure 2–15 Protein synthesis in the cytosol.
Figure 2–16 Protein synthesis on the rough endoplasmic reticulum. C, carboxyl terminus; mRNA, messenger RNA; N, amino terminus; SRP, signal recognition particle.
Golgi Apparatus
Figure 2–17 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Transfer vesicles contain newly synthesized protein and are ferried to the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) and from there to the Golgi apparatus. The protein is modified in the various faces of the Golgi complex and enters the trans Golgi network for packaging.
Figure 2–18 Electron micrograph of the Golgi apparatus of the rat epididymis. ER, endoplasmic reticulum; m, mitochondrion; TGN, trans Golgi network. Numbers represent the saccules of the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi- and Rough Endoplasmic Endothelium–Associated Vesicles
Figure 2–19 A, Face view of the cis Golgi network in a step 6 spermatid. The cis-most saccule is a regular network of anastomotic membranous tubules, capped by the endoplasmic reticulum. Some of the medial saccules with fewer but larger and more irregular pores are visible under the cis Golgi saccule. B, Face view of another cis Golgi network in a step 6 spermatid. Note the fenestration at the edges of the irregular trans Golgi saccules.
Sorting in the Trans Golgi Network
Figure 2–20 The Golgi apparatus and packaging in the trans Golgi network. ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ERGIC, endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi intermediate compartment; COP, coat protein (coatomer).
TRANSPORT OF LYSOSOMAL PROTEINS
Figure 2–21 A map of clathrin coat at 21 Å resolution. To allow a clear view of the path of the triskelion legs, the amino-terminal domain and most of the linker have been removed from this map.
TRANSPORT OF REGULATED SECRETORY PROTEINS
TRANSPORT ALONG THE CONSTITUTIVE PATHWAY
Alternative Concept of the Golgi Apparatus
Endocytosis, Endosomes, and Lysosomes
Endocytotic Mechanisms
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Figure 2–22 The endosomal pathways. CURL, compartment for uncoupling of receptor and ligand.
Figure 2–23 Electron micrograph of endocytosis in a capillary.
Endosomes
Figure 2–24 Electron micrographs of transport of microperoxidase, a trace molecule, across the endothelial cell of a capillary (×35,840). A, The lumen of the capillary is filled with the tracer; note its uptake of pinocytotic vesicles on the luminal aspect. Arrows indicate the extracellular space. B, One minute later, the tracer has been conveyed across the endothelial cell and exocytosed on the connective tissue side into the extracellular space (arrows). Note the region of fused vesicles (C), forming a temporary channel between the lumen of the capillary and the extracellular space.
Figure 2–25 Endocytotic vesicles (Tu) of the proximal tubule cell of the kidney cortex (×25,000). Note the presence of microvilli (Bb), lysosomes (Ly), mitochondria (Mi), rough endoplasmic reticulum (Re), free ribosomes (Ri), and, possibly, early endosomes (Va).
Lysosomes
Formation of Lysosomes
Transport of Substances into Lysosomes
Figure 2–26 Lysosomes of rat cultured alveolar macrophages (×45,000).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Peroxisomes
TABLE 2–1 Major Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Proteasomes
Mitochondria
Figure 2–27 Peroxisomes in hepatocytes (×10,700). The cells were treated with 3′,3′-diaminobenzidine and osmium tetroxide, yielding a black reaction product caused by the enzyme catalase located within peroxisomes.
Outer Mitochondrial Membrane and Intermembrane Space
Figure 2–28 The structure and function of mitochondria. A, Mitochondrion sectioned longitudinally to demonstrate its outer and folded inner membranes. B, Enlarged region of the mitochondrion, displaying the inner membrane subunits and ATP synthase. C, Two ATP synthase complexes and three of the five members of the electron transport chain that also function to pump hydrogen (H+) from the matrix into the intermembrane space. ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; Pi, inorganic phosphate.
Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
Matrix
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Origin and Replication of Mitochondria
Annulate Lamella
INCLUSIONS
Glycogen
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Lipids
TABLE 2–2 Major Subgroups of Glycogen Storage Disorders
Pigments
Crystals
CYTOSKELETON
Thin Filaments
Figure 2–29 Electron micrograph of crystalloid inclusions in a macrophage (×5100).
Figure 2–30 Elements of the cytoskeleton and centriole. A, Microtubule; B, thin filaments (actin); C, intermediate filaments; D, centriole.
Figure 2–31 Electron micrograph of clathrin-coated vesicles contacting filaments (arrowheads) in granulosa cells of the rat ovary (×35,000).
TABLE 2–3 Actin-Binding Proteins
Intermediate Filaments
Figure 2–32 The cytoskeleton. Fibronectin and laminin receptor regions of integrin molecules bind to fibronectin and laminin, respectively, in the extracellular space. Intracellular talin-binding or α-actinin–binding regions of integrin molecules bind to talin or α-actinin, respectively. Thus, integrin molecules bridge the cytoskeleton to an extracellular support framework.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Microtubules
TABLE 2–4 Predominant Types of Intermediate Filaments
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 2–33 Electron micrograph of microtubules assembled with and without microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) (×65,790). Top, Microtubules assembled from unfractionated MAPs. Center, Microtubules assembled in the presence of MAP2 subfraction only. Bottom, Microtubules assembled without MAPs.
Microtubule-Associated Proteins
Centrioles
Chapter 3 Nucleus
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
Inner Nuclear Membrane
Outer Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear Pores
Figure 3–1 Cell nuclei. Light micrograph (×1323). Typical cells, each containing a spherical nucleus (N). Observe the chromatin granules (ChG) and the nucleolus (n).
Nuclear Pore Complex
Associated Glycoproteins
Figure 3–2 Cell nucleus. Electron micrograph (×16,762). Observe the electron-dense nucleolus, the peripherally located dense heterochromatin, and the light euchromatin. The nuclear envelope surrounding the nucleus is composed of an inner nuclear membrane and an outer nuclear membrane that is interrupted by the nuclear pores (arrows).
Nuclear Pore Function
Figure 3–3 Nucleus. The outer nuclear membrane is studded with ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface, and it is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes is the perinuclear cistern. Observe that the two membranes are united at the nuclear pores.
CHROMATIN
Figure 3–4 Nuclear pores. Electron micrograph (×47,778). Many nuclear pores may be observed in this freeze-fractured preparation of a nucleus.
Figure 3–5 Nuclear pore. Electron micrograph (×24,828). Note the heterochromatin adjacent to the inner nuclear membrane and that the inner and outer nuclear membranes are continuous at the nuclear pore.
Figure 3–6 Nuclear pore complex. This illustration of the current understanding of the structure of the nuclear pore complex demonstrates that it is made up of several combinations of eight units each. Note that the model does not include a transporter (see text). (Based on Alberts B, Bray D, Lewis J, et al: Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3rd ed. New York, Garland Publishing, 1994; and on Beck M, Förster F, Ecke M, et al: Nuclear pore complex structure and dynamics revealed by cryoelectron tomography. Science 306:1387–1390, 2004.)
Figure 3–7 Role of Ran in nuclear import. Ran/guanosine diphosphate (GDP) is present in high concentration in the cytoplasm whereas Ran/guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is present in high concentration in the nucleus. Proteins to be imported into the nucleus form complexes with nuclear localization signals (NLSs) importin α and importin β. Upon import through the nuclear pore complex, Ran/GTP binds to importin β, thus releasing importin α and the imported protein. To complete the cycle, the Ran/GTP/importin β complex exits the nucleus to enter the cytoplasm via the nuclear pore complex. Here the Ran/GTPase-activating protein (RanGAP) hydrolyzes GTP, forming Ran/GDP, thus releasing importin β back into the cytoplasm.
Figure 3–8 Chromatin packaging. Note the complex packaging of chromatin to form a chromosome.
Chromosomes
Sex Chromatin
Figure 3–9 Human karyotype. A normal human karyotype illustrating banding.
Ploidy
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Genes
Ribonucleic Acid
Messenger RNA
TRANSCRIPTION
Figure 3–10 DNA transcription into messenger RNA (mRNA).
Transfer RNA
Figure 3–11 Ribosome formation. mRNA, messenger RNA; rRNA, ribosomal RNA.
Ribosomal RNA
Nucleoplasm
Nuclear Matrix
Nucleolus
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
THE CELL CYCLE
Figure 3–12 The cell cycle in actively dividing cells. Nondividing cells, such as neurons, leave the cycle to enter the G0 phase (resting stage). Other cells, such as lymphocytes, may return to the cell cycle.
Interphase
Gap 1
S Phase
G2 Phase
Mitosis
Figure 3–13 Stages of mitosis. Light micrograph (×270). Note the various stages: A, anaphase; M, metaphase; P, prophase.
Figure 3–14 Anaphase stage of mitosis. Light micrograph (×540). Sister chromatids have separated from the metaphase plate and are now migrating away from each other to opposite poles.
Figure 3–15 Immunoflorescent image of a cell in the prometaphase stage of mitosis. Note the spindle microtubules (green) and the chromosomes (blue).
Prophase
Figure 3–16 Stages of mitosis in a cell containing a diploid (2n) number of 6 chromosomes.
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Figure 3–17 Cytokinesis. Electron micrograph (×8092). A spermatogonium in late telophase demonstrating the forming midbody (arrowhead). The chromosomes in the daughter nuclei are beginning to uncoil.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 3–18 Stages of meiosis in an idealized cell containing a diploid (2n) number of 4 chromosomes.
Meiosis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Meiosis II
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
APOPTOSIS
Chapter 4 Extracellular Matrix
GROUND SUBSTANCE
Glycosaminoglycans
Figure 4–1 Tissue fluid flow. Fluid from the higher pressure arterial ends of the capillary bed enters the connective tissue spaces and becomes known as extracellular fluid, which percolates through the ground substance. Some, but not all, of the extracellular fluid then reenters the blood circulatory system at the lower-pressure venous end of the capillary bed and the venules. The extracellular fluid that did not reenter the blood vascular system will enter the even lower-pressure lymphatic system which will eventually deliver it to the blood vascular system.
Figure 4–2 Light micrograph (×132) of areolar connective tissue, displaying cells, collagen fibers (Co), elastic fibers (EF), and ground substance (GS). Observe that in this very loose type of connective tissue the fibers, although interwoven, present a relatively haphazard arrangement, thus permitting stretching of the tissue in any direction. The cells of areolar connective tissue are principally of three types: fibroblast, macrophages, and mast cells. The extensive extracellular spaces are occupied by ground substance composed mainly of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans, a large component of which is aggrecan aggregate, a highly hydrated macromolecule.
Proteoglycans
TABLE 4–1 Types of Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 4–3 The association of aggrecan molecules with collagen fibers. Inset displays a higher magnification of the aggrecan molecule, indicating the core protein of the proteoglycan molecule to which the glycosaminoglycans are attached. The core protein is attached to the hyaluronic acid by link proteins.
Functions of Proteoglycans
Glycoproteins
FIBERS
Collagen Fibers: Structure and Function
Figure 4–4 Scanning electron micrograph of collagen fiber bundles from the epineurium of the rat sciatic nerve (×2034). Note that the thick fiber bundles are interwoven and that they are arranged in an almost haphazard manner. Also, fiber bundles split (arrow) into thinner bundles (or thinner bundles coalesce to form larger bundles). Moreover, each of the thick fiber bundles is composed of numerous fine fibrils that run a parallel course in each bundle.
Figure 4–5 Components of a collagen fiber. The ordered arrangement of the tropocollagen molecules gives rise to gap and overlap regions, responsible for the 67-nm cross-banding of type I collagen. The gap region is the area between the head of one tropocollagen molecule and the tail of the next. The overlapping region is the area where the tail of one tropocollagen molecule overlaps the tail of another in the row above or below. In three dimensions, the overlap region coincides with numerous other overlap regions, and the gap regions coincide with numerous other gap regions. The heavy metals that are used in electron microscopy precipitate into the gap regions and make them visible as the 67-nm cross-banding. Type I collagen is composed of two identical a1(I) chains (blue) and one a2(I) chain (pink).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Collagen Synthesis
Figure 4–6 Electron micrograph (×22,463) of collagen fibers from the perineurium of the rat sciatic nerve. Ep, epineurium; En, endoneurium; P, perineurium.
TABLE 4–2 Major Types and Characteristics of Collagen
Figure 4–7 Sequence of events in the synthesis of type I collagen. Messenger RNA (mRNA) leaves the nucleus and attracts small and large subunits of ribosomes. As translation begins, the polysome complex translocates to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and the nascent alpha chains enter the lumen of the RER. Within the lumen, some proline and lysine residues of the α-chains are hydroxylated, and the preprocollagen molecule is glycosylated. Three α-chains form a helical configuration—the procollagen triple helix. The procollagen is transferred to the Golgi complex where further modification occurs. At the trans Golgi network the procollagen is packaged in clathrin-coated vesicles, and the procollagen is exocytosed. As the procollagen leaves the cell, a membrane-bound enzyme called procollagen peptidase cleaves the propeptides from both the carboxyl- and the amino-end of procollagen, transforming it into tropocollagen. These newly formed macromolecules self-assemble into collagen fibrils.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 4–8 Degradation of type I collagen by fibroblasts. Collagen turnover is relatively slow in some regions of the body (e.g., in bone, where it may be stable for as long as 10 years), whereas in other regions, such as the gingiva and the periodontal ligament, the half-life of collagen may be weeks or months. Fibroblasts of the gingiva and periodontal ligament are responsible not only for the synthesis but also for the resorption of collagen.
Elastic Fibers
Figure 4–9 Light micrograph of elastic cartilage (×270). Note the presence of elastic fibers (arrows) in the matrix. The large chondrocytes of elastic cartilage occupy spaces known as lacunae in the proteoglycan-rich matrix. The large bundles of elastic fibers are clearly evident, and they appear to be arranged in a haphazard fashion. Observe that the thicker elastic fibers are composed of fine fibrils. C, chondrocyte; P, perichondrium.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
Basal Lamina
Figure 4–10 Light micrograph of dense, regular elastic connective tissue (×270). Note that the elastic fibers are short and are arranged almost parallel with each other and that their ends are somewhat curled. Unlike collagen fibers of dense regular connective tissue, where the collagen fibrils and fibers closely parallel each other, these elastic fibers appear to be somewhat misaligned.
Figure 4–11 An elastic fiber, showing microfibrils surrounding the amorphous elastin.
Lamina Reticularis
Figure 4–12 Electron micrograph of elastic fiber development. Note the presence of microfibrils surrounding the amorphous matrix of elastin as if a small space were to be delineated by slats of a picket fence (arrowheads). These fibrillin-containing microfibrils are elaborated and released first, and then the manufacturing cell—a fibroblast of connective tissue proper or a smooth muscle cell of a blood vessel—releases elastin into the space enclosed by the microfibrils.
INTEGRINS AND DYSTROGLYCANS
Figure 4–13 Electron micrograph of the basal lamina of the human cornea (×50,000). Note the hemidesmosomes (large arrows) and the anchoring plaques among the anchoring fibrils (small arrows). Observe that the basal cell membrane is clearly visible and that the plaques of the hemidesmosomes are attached to the cytoplasmic surface of the basal plasmalemma. The dense, amorphous-appearing line that follows the contour of the basal plasma membrane is the lamina densa, and the clear area between it and the basal cell membrane is the lamina lucida.
Figure 4–14 Basal lamina and lamina reticularis.
Figure 4–15 This scanning electron micrograph is of a 6-day chick embryo cornea from which a portion of the epithelium has been removed, exposing epithelial cells on the underlying basement membrane. The membrane itself has been partially removed, revealing the underlying primary corneal stroma composed of orthogonally arrayed collagen fibrils. The white bar at the lower left is the 10-μm mark.
Figure 4–16 Electron micrograph of the basal lamina of the corneal epithelium (×165,000). H. Sulf., Heparan sulfate-rich.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 5 Epithelium and Glands
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Epithelium
Classification of Epithelial Membranes
TABLE 5–1 Classification of Epithelia
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Figure 5–1 Types of epithelia.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
NONKERATINIZED
Figure 5–2 Light micrographs of simple epithelia. A, Simple squamous epithelium (arrows) (×270). Note the morphology of the cells and their nuclei. Also present is simple cuboidal epithelium (arrowheads). Note the round, centrally placed nuclei. B, Simple columnar epithelium (×540). Observe the oblong nuclei (N) and the striated border (arrows).
KERATINIZED
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Transitional Epithelium
Figure 5–3 Light micrographs of stratified epithelia. A, Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium (×509). Observe the many layers of cells and flattened (squamous) nucleated cells in the top layer (arrow). B, Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (×125). C, Stratified cuboidal epithelium of the duct of a sweat gland (CC) (×509). D, Transitional epithelium (×125). Observe that the surface cells facing the lumen of the bladder are dome-shaped (arrows), which characterizes transitional epithelium.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Figure 5–4 Light micrograph of pseudostratified columnar epithelia (×540). This type of epithelium appears to be stratified; however, all of the epithelial cells in this figure stand on the basal lamina (BL).
Polarity and Cell-Surface Specializations
Apical Domain
MICROVILLI
Figure 5–5 Electron micrograph of microvilli of epithelial cells from the small intestine (×2800).
CILIA
Figure 5–6 High-magnification electron micrograph of microvilli (×60,800).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Basolateral Domain
LATERAL MEMBRANE SPECIALIZATIONS
Figure 5–7 Electron micrograph of the terminal web and microvillus. Observe that the actin filaments of the microvilli are attached to the terminal web. A, ×83,060; B (inset), ×66,400.
Figure 5–8 The structure of a microvillus.
Zonulae Occludentes
Zonulae Adherentes
Figure 5–9 The microtubular arrangement of the axoneme in the cilium.
Figure 5–10 Electron micrographs of cilia. A, Longitudinal section of cilia (×36,000). B, Cross sectional view demonstrating microtubular arrangement in cilia (×88,000).
Figure 5–11 Junctional complexes, gap junctions, and hemidesmosomes.
Figure 5–12 Electron micrograph of the junctional complex.
Figure 5–13 Freeze-fracture replica displaying the tight junction (zonula occludens) in guinea pig small intestine (×60,000). The P-face of the microvillar membrane (M) possesses fewer intramembrane particles than the P-face of the lateral cell membrane (L). Note the free terminal ridge-shaped protrusions (arrows) and desmosome (D).
Desmosomes (Maculae Adherentes)
Figure 5–14 Electron micrographs of a desmosome. Observe the dense accumulation of intracellular intermediate filaments inserting into the plaque of each cell (asterisk).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Gap Junctions
Figure 5–15 Electron micrographs of freeze-fracture replica showing the intramembrane particles of the astrocyte (scale bar = 0.1 μm). A, Protoplasmic fracture face. Orthogonal arrays of particles (OAP; arrows) are observed near the gap junction (GJ). Note the respective differences in OAP and GJ particles in shape (square and circle), size (average, 30 nm2 and 45 nm2), and arrangement (orthogonal and hexagonal). B, Ectoplasmic fracture face. Corresponding pits of OAP are oriented into columns (arrows) near the GJ pits. Three OAP are gathered together (outlined rectangle).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
BASAL SURFACE SPECIALIZATIONS
Plasma Membrane Enfoldings
Hemidesmosomes
Renewal of Epithelial Cells
Figure 5–16 Electron micrographs of hemidesmosomes illustrating the relationship of striated anchoring fibers (SAFs), composed of type VII collagen, with the lamina densa and type III collagen of the lamina reticularis. c, Collagen fibers; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; F, cell extensions. Wide arrows indicate the cytoplasmic aspect of hemidesmosomes; asterisk indicates SAF plaque.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
GLANDS
Exocrine Glands
Figure 5–17 Serous gland. Light micrograph of a plastic-embedded monkey pancreas (×540).
Figure 5–18 Light micrograph of the monkey submandibular gland (×540). M, mucous acini; S, serous demilunes.
Figure 5–19 Modes of secretion: A, holocrine; B, merocrine; C, apocrine.
Figure 5–20 Light micrograph of goblet cells (GC) in the epithelial lining of monkey ileum (×540).
Figure 5–21 Ultrastructure of a goblet cell illustrating the tightly packed secretory granules of the theca.
Unicellular Exocrine Glands
Figure 5–22 Electron micrograph of goblet cells from the colon of a rabbit (×9114). Note the presence of several Golgi complexes (arrowheads) and the numerous, compactly packed mucinogen granules (MG) that occupy much of the apical portion of the cells.
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Figure 5–23 Classification of multicellular exocrine glands. Green represents the secretory portion of the gland; lavender represents the duct portion.
Endocrine Glands
Figure 5–24 Salivary gland: its organization, secretory units, and system of ducts.
Figure 5–25 Light micrograph of myoepithelial cells immunostained for actin (×640). Myoepithelial cells surround the acini.
Diffuse Neuroendocrine System
Figure 5–26 Light micrograph of diffuse neuroendocrine system (DNES) cell (×540). Note the pale-staining DNES cells (APD) located in the mucosa of the ileum (arrow).
Chapter 6 Connective Tissue
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Ground Substance
Figure 6–1 Origins of connective tissue cells (not drawn to scale).
Figure 6–2 Light micrograph of loose (areolar) connective tissue displaying collagen (C) and elastic (E) fibers and some of the cell types common to loose connective tissue (×132).
Fibers
Figure 6–3 Cell types and fiber types in loose connective tissue (not drawn to scale).
CELLULAR COMPONENTS
Fixed Connective Tissue Cells
Fibroblasts
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Myofibroblasts
Figure 6–4 Electron micrograph displaying a portion of a fibroblast and the packed collagen fibers in rat tendon. Observe the heterochromatin in the nucleus and the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) in the cytoplasm. Banding in the collagen fibers also may be observed.
Pericytes
Adipose Cells
Figure 6–5 Electron micrograph of adipocytes in various stages of maturation in rat hypodermis. Observe the adipocyte at the top of the micrograph with its nucleus and cytoplasm crowded to the periphery by the fat droplet.
Storage and Release of Fat by Adipose Cells
Figure 6–6 Light micrograph of white adipose tissue from monkey hypodermis (×132). The lipid was extracted during tissue processing. Note how the cytoplasm and nuclei (arrows) are crowded to the periphery. Septa (S) divide the fat into lobules.
Mast Cells
Mast Cell Development and Distribution
Figure 6–7 Multilocular tissues (brown fat) in the bat (×11,000). Note the numerous mitochondria dispersed throughout the cell.
Mast Cell Activation and Degranulation
Figure 6–8 Transport of lipid between a capillary and an adipocyte. Lipids are transported in the bloodstream in the form of chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs). The enzyme lipoprotein lipase, manufactured by the fat cell and transported to the capillary lumen, hydrolyzes the lipids to fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids diffuse into the connective tissue of the adipose tissue and into the lipocytes, where they are reesterified into triglycerides for storage. When required, triglycerides stored within the adipocyte are hydrolyzed by hormone-sensitive lipase into fatty acids and glycerol. These then enter the connective tissue spaces of adipose tissue and from there into a capillary, where they are bound to albumin and transported in the blood. Glucose from the capillary can be transported to adipocytes, which can manufacture lipids from carbohydrate sources.
Figure 6–9 Light micrograph of mast cells (arrows) in monkey connective tissue (×540). The granules within the mast cells contain histamine and other preformed pharmacological agents.
Figure 6–10 Electron micrograph of a mast cell in the rat (×5500). Observe the dense granules filling the cytoplasm.
Figure 6–11 Binding of antigens and cross-linking of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-receptor complexes on the mast cell plasma membrane. This event triggers a cascade that ultimately results in the synthesis and release of leukotrienes and prostaglandins as well as in degranulation, thus releasing histamine, heparin, eosinophil chemotactic factor (ECF), and neutrophil chemotactic factor (NCF).
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
TABLE 6–1 Principal Primary and Secondary Mediators Released by Mast Cells
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Macrophages
Figure 6–12 Electron micrograph of a macrophage in the rat epididymis.
Macrophage Development and Distribution
Macrophage Function
Figure 6–13 Light micrograph of liver of an animal injected with India ink demonstrating the presence of cells known as Kuppfer cells (KC) that preferentially phagocytose the ink (×540).
Transient Connective Tissue Cells
Plasma Cells
Leukocytes
Figure 6–14 Light micrograph of plasma cells in the lamina propria of the monkey jejunum (×540). Observe the “clock face” nucleus (arrows).
Figure 6–15 Drawing of a plasma cell as seen in an electron micrograph. The arrangement of heterochromatin gives the nucleus a “clock face” appearance.
Figure 6–16 Electron micrograph of a plasma cell from the lamina propria of the rat duodenum displaying abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and prominent Golgi complex (×10,300). G, Golgi apparatus; M, mitochondria; N, nucleus. Arrowheads represent small vesicles; arrows represent dense granules.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Embryonic Connective Tissue
TABLE 6–2 Classification of Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Dense Connective Tissue
Figure 6–17 Light micrograph of dense irregular collagenous connective tissue from monkey skin (×132). Observe the many bundles of collagen (CF) in random orientation.
Figure 6–18 Light micrograph of dense regular collagenous connective tissue from monkey tendon (×270). Note the ordered, parallel array of collagen bundles and the elongated nuclei (N) of the fibroblasts lying between collagen bundles.
Reticular Tissue
Adipose Tissue
White (Unilocular) Adipose Tissue
Figure 6–19 Light micrograph of a cross section of monkey tendon. The scattered, small black structures represent nuclei of fibroblasts (×270).
Figure 6–20 Light micrograph of reticular tissue (stained with silver) displaying the networks of reticular fibers (×270). Many lymphoid cells are interspersed between the reticular fibers (arrows).
Brown (Multilocular) Adipose Tissue
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Histogenesis of Adipose Tissue
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 7 Cartilage and Bone
CARTILAGE
Hyaline Cartilage
Figure 7–1 Types of cartilage.
Histogenesis and Growth of Hyaline Cartilage
TABLE 7–1 Types of Cartilage
Figure 7–2 Light micrograph of hyaline cartilage (×270). Observe the large ovoid chondrocytes (C) trapped in their lacunae. Above them are the elongated chondroblasts (Cb), and at the very top is the perichondrium (P) and the underlying chondrogenic (Cg) cell layer.
Cartilage Cells
Matrix of Hyaline Cartilage
Histophysiology of Hyaline Cartilage
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Elastic Cartilage
TABLE 7–2 Effects of Hormones and Vitamins on Hyaline Cartilage
Figure 7–3 Light micrograph of elastic cartilage (×132). Observe the perichondrium (P) and the chondrocytes (C) in their lacunae (shrunken from the walls because of processing), some of which contain more than one cell, evidence of interstitial growth. Elastic fibers (arrows) are scattered throughout.
Fibrocartilage
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 7–4 Light micrograph of fibrocartilage (×132). Note alignment of the chondrocytes (C) in rows interspersed with thick bundles of collagen fibers (arrows).
BONE
Figure 7–5 Light micrograph of decalcified compact bone (×540). Osteocytes (Oc) may be observed in lacunae (L). Also note the osteon (Os), osteoprogenitor cells (Op), and the cementing lines (Cl).
Bone Matrix
Inorganic Component
Organic Component
Cells of Bone
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Osteoblasts
Figure 7–6 Light micrograph of intramembranous ossification (×540). Osteoblasts (Ob) line the bony spicule where they are secreting osteoid onto the bone. Osteoclasts (Oc) may be observed housed in Howship’s lacunae.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 7–7 Electron micrographs of bone-forming cells. A, Five osteoblasts (1 to 5) lined up on the surface of bone (B) displaying abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum. Observe the process of an osteocyte in a canaliculus (arrow). The cell with the elongated nucleus lying above the osteoblasts is an osteoprogenitor cell (Op) (×2500). B, Note the osteocyte in its lacuna (L) with its processes extending into canaliculi (arrows) (×1000). B, bone; C, cartilage.
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
Morphology of Osteoclasts
Figure 7–8 Electron micrograph of an osteoclast. Note the clear zone (Cz) on either side of the ruffled border (B) of this multinucleated cell.
Mechanism of Bone Resorption
Figure 7–9 Osteoclastic function. RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Hormonal Control of Bone Resorption
Bone Structure
Gross Observation of Bone
Bone Types Based on Microscopic Observations
Lamellar Systems of Compact Bone
Figure 7–10 Diagram of bone illustrating compact cortical bone, osteons, lamellae, Volkmann’s canals, haversian canals, lacunae, canaliculi, and spongy bone.
OUTER AND INNER CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE
HAVERSIAN CANAL SYSTEMS (OSTEONS)
Figure 7–11 Light micrograph of undecalcified ground bone (×270). Observe the haversian system containing the haversian canal (C) and concentric lamellae (L) with lacunae with their canaliculi (arrows).
Figure 7–12 Light micrograph of decalcified compact bone (×162). Several osteons (Os) are displayed with their concentric lamellae (L). A Volkmann’s canal (V) is also displayed. The dark-staining structures scattered throughout represent nuclei of osteocytes (Oc).
Histogenesis of Bone
Intramembranous Bone Formation
Figure 7–13 Intramembranous bone formation.
Figure 7–14 Light micrograph of intramembranous bone formation (ossification) (×132). Trabeculae of bone are being formed by osteoblasts lining their surface (arrows). Observe osteocytes trapped in lacunae (arrowheads). Primitive osteons (Os) are beginning to form.
Endochondral Bone Formation
Figure 7–15 Endochondral bone formation. Blue represents the cartilage model upon which bone is formed. The bone then replaces the cartilage. A, Hyaline cartilage model. B, Cartilage at the midriff (diaphysis) is invaded by vascular elements. C, Subperiosteal bone collar is formed. D, Bone collar prevents nutrients from reaching cartilage cells so they die leaving confluent lacunae. Osteoclasts invade and etch bone to permit periosteal bud to form. E, Calcified bone/calcified cartilage complex at epiphyseal ends of the growing bone. F, Enlargement of the epiphyseal plate at the end of the bone where bone replaces cartilage.
TABLE 7–3 Events in Endochondral Bone Formation
EVENTS OCCURRING AT THE PRIMARY CENTER OF OSSIFICATION
Figure 7–16 Electron micrograph of hypertrophic chondrocytes in the growing mandibular condyle (×83,000). Observe the abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum and developing Golgi apparatus (G). Note also glycogen (gly) deposits in one end of the cells, a characteristic of these cells shortly before death. Col, collagen fibers; Fw, territorial matrix.
EVENTS OCCURRING AT SECONDARY CENTERS OF OSSIFICATION
Figure 7–17 Light micrograph of endochondral bone formation (×14). The upper half demonstrates cartilage (C) containing chondrocytes that mature, hypertrophy, and calcify at the interface; the lower half shows where calcified cartilage/bone complex (arrows) is being resorbed and bone (b) is being formed. P, periosteum.
Figure 7–18 Light micrograph of endochondral bone formation (×132). Observe the blood vessel (BV), bone-covered trabeculae (Tr) of calcified cartilage, and medullary cavity (MC).
Figure 7–19 Higher magnification of endochondral bone formation (×270). The trabeculae of calcified cartilage (CC) are covered by a thin layer of bone (darker red) with osteocytes embedded in it (arrows) and with osteoblasts (Ob) lying next to the bone.
BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH
BONE GROWTH IN WIDTH
Calcification of Bone
Bone Remodeling
Bone Repair
Figure 7–20 Events in bone fracture repair.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Histophysiology of Bone
Maintenance of Blood Calcium Levels
Hormonal Effects
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Nutritional Effects
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
TABLE 7–4 Vitamins Affecting Skeletal Development
Joints
Figure 7–21 Anatomy of a diarthrodial joint.
Chapter 8 Muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE
TABLE 8–1 Comparison of Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers*
Figure 8–1 Light micrograph of a longitudinal section of skeletal muscle (×540). Note the peripherally located nuclei (N) as well as the very fine connective tissue elements between individual muscle fibers. A, band; Z, disk.
Investments
Light Microscopy
Figure 8–2 Three types of muscle. Top, Skeletal muscle; center, smooth muscle; bottom, cardiac muscle.
Figure 8–3 Light micrograph of a cross section of skeletal muscle (×540). Note the peripheral location of the nuclei (N) as well as the capillary (C) located in the slender connective tissue elements of the endomysium (E). Also observe the perimysium (P) that envelops bundles of muscle fibers.
Fine Structure of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Figure 8–4 Organization of myofibrils and sarcomeres within a skeletal muscle cell. Note that the entire gross muscle is surrounded by a thick connective tissue investment, known as the epimysium, which provides finer connective tissue elements (the perimysium) that surround bundles of skeletal muscle fibers. Individual muscle cells are surrounded by still finer connective tissue elements, the endomysium. Individual skeletal muscle fibers possess a sarcolemma that has tubular invaginations (T tubules) that course through the sarcoplasm and are flanked by terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The contractile elements of the skeletal muscle fiber are organized into discrete cylindrical units called myofibrils. Each myofibril is composed of thousands of sarcomeres with their characteristic A, I, and H bands and Z disk.
Structural Organization of Myofibrils
Figure 8–5 Organization of triads and sarcomeres of skeletal muscle. Note that in skeletal muscle the triad is always located at the junction of the A and I bands, permitting the quick release of calcium ions from the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum just in the region where the interaction of the thick and thin filaments can produce efficient sarcomere shortening. Observe the presence of mitochondria around the periphery of the myofibrils.
Figure 8–6 Electron micrograph of longitudinal section of rat skeletal muscle (×19,330).
Figure 8–7 Electron micrograph of triads and sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle (×57,847). Evident are a T tubule (t) and terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (S). Note the cross-section of a T tubule flanked by terminal cisternae (arrow).
Figure 8–8 The sarcomere and its components. A, The myosin molecules are arranged in an antiparallel fashion so that their heads are projecting from each end of the thick filament, and each thick filament is anchored in position by four titin molecules that extend from the Z disk to the center of the thick filament at the M line. Additionally, each thin filament is fixed in place by nebulin molecules that extend from the Z disk to the distal end of the thin filament. B, Cross-sectional profiles of a sarcomere at indicated regions. Each thick filament is surrounded equidistally by six thin filaments, so that there are always two thin filaments between neighboring thick filaments. C, Myofilaments (thick and thin filaments). Each thin filament is composed of two chains of F-actins, where each F-actin is composed of numerous G-actin molecules assembled head to toe. Each groove of a thin filament is occupied by a linear protein called tropomyosin; these proteins are positioned in such a fashion that they block the myosin-binding site of each G-actin molecule. Additionally the tripartite molecule, troponin, is associated with each tropomyosin molecule. When the troponin C moiety of troponin binds calcium, the conformational change in the troponin molecule pushes the tropomyosin deeper into the groove, unmasking the myosin-binding site of the G-actin and permitting muscle contraction to occur. D, Myosin II molecule. Each myosin II molecule is composed of two light chains and two heavy chains. The heavy chains can be cleaved by trypsin into light and heavy meromyosin, and each heavy meromyosin can be cleaved by papain into S1 and S2 fragments.
TABLE 8–2 Proteins Associated with Skeletal Muscle
THICK FILAMENTS
Figure 8–9 Electron micrograph of cross section of skeletal muscle fiber. Asterisks represent thick and thin filaments. gly, glycogen; m, mitochondria; pm, plasma membrane.
THIN FILAMENTS
Muscle Contraction and Relaxation
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction
Figure 8–10 The role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in muscle contraction. ADP, adenosine diphosphate; P, phosphate; Pi, inorganic phosphate; S1 subfragment, fragment of myosin.
Myotendinous Junctions
Innervation of Skeletal Muscle
Impulse Transmission at the Neuromuscular Junction
Figure 8–11 Scanning electron micrograph of a neuromuscular junction (MJ) from the tongue of a cat (×2315). N, nerve fiber. Arrows indicate striations.
Figure 8–12 Electron micrograph of a mouse neuromuscular junction.
Figure 8–13 Neuromuscular junction. Note that the myelin sheath stops as the axon arborizes over the skeletal muscle fiber, but the Schwann cell sheath continues to insulate the nerve fiber. The terminal nerve branches expand to form axon terminals that overlie the motor endplates of individual muscle fibers.
Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs
Figure 8–14 Diagram depicting events occurring at the neuromuscular junction during the release of acetylcholine. AcCoA, acetyl CoA; Ach, acetylcholine; AchE, acetylcholinesterase; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; PG, proteoglycan.
Muscle Spindles
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 8–15 Muscle spindle. A, Schematic diagram showing components of a muscle spindle. B, The various fiber types of a muscle spindle and their innervation are presented in a spread-out fashion. Ia, group Ia sensory fiber; II, group II sensory fiber. (A, Modified from Krstic RV: Die Gewebe des Menschen und der Saugertiere. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1978. B, Modified from Hulliger M: The mammalian muscle spindle and its central control. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 101:1–110, 1984.)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Golgi Tendon Organs (Neurotendinous Spindles)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CARDIAC MUSCLE
Intercalated Disks
Figure 8–16 Light micrograph of cardiac muscle in longitudinal section (×540). Note the nucleus (N) and the presence of intercalated disks, regions where the cardiac muscle cells form desmosomes (D), fasciae adherents, and gap junctions with each other.
Figure 8–17 Light micrograph of cardiac muscle in cross-section (×540). The nucleus (N) is centrally located, and at each pole of the nucleus the glycogen deposits (Gl) have been extracted during the histological preparation.
Figure 8–18 Light micrograph of cardiac muscle cells in longitudinal section, displaying their characteristic branching patterns and glycogen deposits (Gl) (×270). The branching of the cardiac muscle fibers, the central location of the nuclei (N), and the presence of intercalated disks (I) are identifying characteristics of cardiac muscle.
Figure 8–19 Electron micrograph of a rat atrial muscle cell (×14,174). Observe the secretory granules containing atrial natriuretic peptide.
Organelles
Figure 8–20 Cardiac muscle. A, Three-dimensional view of an intercalated disk. B, Two-dimensional view of the intercalated disk with a display of adhering and communicating junctions. The transverse portions of the intercalated disk act as a Z plate, and thin filaments are embedded in them.
Figure 8–21 Electron micrograph of an intercalated disk from a steer heart (×29,622). Is, intercellular space; M, M-line; Mi, mitochondrion; Ri, ribosomes; Tu, sarcoplasmic reticulum. The numerals 2 and 3 denote the two cardiac muscle cells, one on either side of the intercalated disk.
Figure 8–22 Electron micrograph of an intercalated disk from the atrium of a mouse heart (×57,810). Observe the gap junctions (arrow).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Light Microscopy of Smooth Muscle Fibers
TABLE 8–3 Comparison of the Three Types of Muscle
Figure 8–23 Light micrograph of smooth muscle in longitudinal section (×540). The nuclei (N) are located in the midline of the cell but off-center, so that they are closer to one lateral cell membrane than to the other. The nuclei are not corkscrew-shaped, indicating that the muscle is not undergoing contraction.
Figure 8–24 Light micrograph of smooth muscle in cross section (×540). The nuclei (N) are of various diameters, indicating that they are spindle-shaped and that they have been sectioned at various regions along their length. Also, knowing that the nucleus of the cell is located at its center and that the cell is much longer than the nucleus, it is reasonable to expect that there will be many smooth muscle cells in the field that do not display their nuclei, because they have been sectioned along regions of the cell that are away from the center.
Fine Structure of Smooth Muscle
Figure 8–25 A relaxed smooth muscle cell and a contracted smooth muscle cell. Note that in a contracted smooth muscle cell the nucleus appears corkscrew-shaped.
Control of Smooth Muscle Contraction
Innervation of Smooth Muscle
Figure 8–26 Electron micrograph of smooth muscle cells.
REGENERATION OF MUSCLE
Figure 8–27 Activation of a myosin molecule of smooth muscle. ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; P, myosin light chain–bound phosphate.
MYOEPITHELIAL CELLS AND MYOFIBROBLASTS
Chapter 9 Nervous Tissue
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVOUS TISSUE
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neurons
Structure and Function of Neurons
Figure 9–1 Light micrograph of the gray matter of the spinal cord (×270). Observe the multipolar neuron (mN) cell bodies and their processes.
Figure 9–2 Light micrograph of a sensory ganglion (×270). Observe the large neuronal cell bodies (N) with singular nucleoli (n).
Neuronal Cell Body (Soma, Perikaryon)
INCLUSIONS
Figure 9–3 Typical motor neuron. B, Electron micrograph of a ventral horn neuron with several of its dendrites (×1300). (B, From Ling EA, Wen CY, Shieh JY, et al: Neuroglial response to neuron injury: A study using intraneural injection of Ricinus communis agglutinin-60. J Anat 164:201–213, 1989.)
Figure 9–4 The various types of neurons.
CYTOSKELETAL COMPONENTS
Dendrites
Figure 9–5 Ultrastructure of a neuronal cell body.
Axons
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 9–6 Process of myelination in the central nervous system. Unlike the Schwann cell of the peripheral nervous system, each oligodendroglion is capable of myelinating several axons.
Figure 9–7 The fine structure of a myelinated nerve fiber and its Schwann cell.
Figure 9–8 The fine structure of an unmyelinated nerve fiber.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Classification of Neurons
Neuroglial Cells
Figure 9–9 The various types of neuroglial cells.
Astrocytes
Figure 9–10 Electron micrograph of protoplasmic astrocyte (×11,400). Observe the nucleus (N), filaments (F), mitochondria (m), microtubules (t), free ribosomes (r), and granular endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Two lysosomes (L) are also identified in the processes of the neuroglia. Note the irregular cell boundary (arrowheads) and processes of other neuroglial cells of the neuropil (asterisks). Inset, Light micrograph of three highly branched protoplasmic astrocytes (P) surrounding capillaries (C). (Large image, From Peters A, Palay SL, Webster HF: The Fine Structure of the Nervous System. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1976. Inset, From Leeson TS, Leeson CR, Paparo AA: Text/Atlas of Histology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1988.)
Figure 9–11 Light micrograph of a fibrous astrocyte (arrow) in the human cerebellum (×132).
Oligodendrocytes
Figure 9–12 Electron micrograph of an oligodendrocyte (×2925). Note the nucleus (N), endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus (G), and mitochondria (m). Processes of fibrous astrocytes (As) contact the oligodendrocyte.
Microglial Cells
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Ependymal Cells
Schwann Cells
Figure 9–13 Diagrammatic representation of the myelin structure at the nodes of Ranvier of axons in the central nervous system and (inset) in the peripheral nervous system.
Figure 9–14 Electron micrograph of a myelinated peripheral nerve. Note the internal (i) and external (e) mesaxons as well as the Schwann cell cytoplasm and nucleus.
GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSES*
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 9–15 Schematic diagram of the establishment of the resting potential in a typical neuron. Observe that the potassium ion (K+) leak channels outnumber the sodium ion (Na+) and calcium ion (Cl−) channels; consequently, more K+ can leave the cell than Na+ or Cl−can enter. Because there are more positive ions outside than inside the cell, the outside is more positive than the inside, establishing a potential difference across the membrane. Ion channels and ion pumps not directly responsible for the establishment of resting membrane potential are not shown.
Figure 9–16 Schematic diagram of the propagation of an action potential in an unmyelinated (A) and a myelinated (B) axon (see text).
Synapses and the Transmission of the Nerve Impulse
Figure 9–17 Schematic diagram of the various types of synapses.
Synaptic Morphology
Figure 9–18 Electron micrographs of synapses. The arrow indicates transmission direction. A, Axodendritic synapse (×37,600). Presynaptic vesicles are located to the left B, Axodendritic synapse (×43,420). Note neurotubules in dendrite. C, Dendrite in cross section (×43,420). Note the synapse. D, Axodendritic synapse (×76,000). Note presynaptic vesicle fusing with the axolemma. E, Axon terminal with clear synaptic vesicles and dense-cored vesicles (×31,000).
Figure 9–19 Electron micrograph of an axodendritic synapse. Observe the numerous synaptic vesicles (V) within the axon terminal synapsing with dendrites and the synaptic clefts at these sites (arrows).
Neurotransmitters
TABLE 9–1 Common Neurotransmitters and Functions Elicited by Their Receptor
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Figure 9–20 Light micrograph of a longitudinal section of a peripheral nerve (×270). Myelin and nodes of Ranvier (arrow) as well as the lightly stained oval nuclei of Schwann cells (Sc) may be observed.
Figure 9–21 Light micrograph of a cross-section of a peripheral nerve (×132). Observe the axons (A) and the perineurium (P) surrounding the fascicle.
Connective Tissue Investments
Figure 9–22 Structure of a nerve bundle.
Functional Classification of Nerves
Conduction Velocity
TABLE 9–2 Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibers
SOMATIC MOTOR AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS
Motor Component of the Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Figure 9–23 Comparison of somatic and visceral reflexes.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Figure 9–24 The autonomic nervous system. Left, Sympathetic division. Right, Parasympathetic division.
GANGLIA
Sensory Ganglia
Autonomic Ganglia
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Figure 9–25 Electron micrograph of the ciliary ganglion. At, axon terminal; Ax, axon; Den, dendrite; GIPr, gastric inhibitory peptide receptor; LF, lipofuscin granules; Nu, nucleus; rER, rough endoplasmic reticulum; Sat, satellite cells.
Meninges
Dura Mater
Figure 9–26 Electron micrograph of axodendritic synapses (arrow).
Figure 9–27 The skull and the layers of the meninges covering the brain.
Arachnoid
Pia Mater
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Blood-Brain Barrier
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Choroid Plexus
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Figure 9–28 Light micrograph of the choroid plexus (×270). Observe capillaries (C) and the simple cuboidal epithelium of the choroid plexus (Ce).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Cerebral Cortex
TABLE 9–3 Comparison of Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Cerebellar Cortex
Figure 9–29 Light micrograph of the cerebellum showing its layers: the pia mater (PM), molecular layer (ML), and granular layer (GL) (×132). Especially note the prominent Purkinje cells (PC).
Figure 9–30 Higher-magnification light micrograph of the granular layer of the cerebellum illustrating Purkinje cells (×540). The multi-polar Purkinji cells (PC) display a nucleus (N) and a dentritic tree (D).
NERVE REGENERATION
Axon Reaction
Local Reaction
Figure 9–31 Schematic diagram of nerve regeneration. A, Normal neuron. Appearance 2 weeks (B), 3 weeks (C), and 3 months (D) after injury. Appearance several months after injury of neuron with unsuccessful nerve regeneration is shown in E.
Anterograde Reaction
Retrograde Reaction and Regeneration
Transneuronal Degeneration
Regeneration in the Central Nervous System
Neuronal Plasticity
Chapter 10 Blood and Hemopoiesis
BLOOD
Figure 10–1 Light micrograph of circulating blood (×270). Note the abundance of erythrocytes as well as the three leukocytes. Also observe the presence of numerous platelets that appear as small dots interspersed among the erythrocytes.
Figure 10–2 Cells and platelets of circulating blood.
Plasma
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes
TABLE 10–1 Proteins of Plasma
Hemoglobin
Figure 10–3 Light micrograph of cells and platelets of circulating blood (×1325). Each light micrograph in this series displays erythrocytes (E), platelets (arrows), and a single white blood cell. A, Lymphocyte; B, monocyte; C, neutrophil; D, eosinophil; E, basophil.
Figure 10–4 Scanning electron micrograph of circulating red blood cells displaying their biconcave disk shape (×5850).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Erythrocyte Cell Membrane
Figure 10–5 The cytoskeleton and integral proteins of the erythrocyte plasmalemma. Spectrin forms a hexagonal latticework that is anchored to the erythrocyte plasma membrane by band 4.1 and band 3 proteins as well as by ankyrin.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
TABLE 10–2 ABO Blood Group System
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Leukocytes
Neutrophils
Neutrophil Granules
Neutrophil Functions
TABLE 10–3 Leukocytes
Figure 10–6 Electron micrograph of a human neutrophil. Note the three lobes of the nucleus (N), the presence of granules (arrows) throughout the cytoplasm, and the centrally located centriole (C). Although it appears as if there are three distinct nuclei in this image, they are merely lobes of the same nucleus, and the connections are outside the present field of view.
Figure 10–7 Bacterial phagocytosis and destruction by a neutrophil. These actions are dependent on the ability of the neutrophil to recognize the bacterium via the presence of complement and/or antibody attached to the microorganism. H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; HOCl, hypochlorous acid; MPO, myeloperoxidase, O2−, superoxide, PLA2, phospholipase A2.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Eosinophils
Eosinophil Granules
Eosinophil Functions
Figure 10–8 Electron micrograph of a human eosinophil. Note the electron-dense internum (arrows) of the eosinophilic granules and the two lobes of the nucleus (N).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Basophils
Basophil Granules
Basophil Functions
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Monocytes
FUNCTION OF MACROPHAGES
Lymphocytes
FUNCTIONS OF B AND T CELLS
Figure 10–9 Electron micrograph of a lymphocyte (×14,173). Arrows point to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. G, Golgi apparatus; nu, nucleus.
FUNCTIONS OF NULL CELLS
Platelets
Platelet Tubules and Granules
Figure 10–10 Platelet ultrastructure. Note that the periphery of the platelet is occupied by actin filaments that encircle the platelet and maintain the discoid morphology of this structure.
Platelet Function
Figure 10–11 Electron micrograph of a platelet and two erythrocytes in the gastric mucosa capillary (×22,100). Th, platelet; Bm, basal lamina; Er, erythrocyte; Fe, fenestra; Go, Golgi apparatus; Mi, mitochondrion; Nu, nucleus of the capillary; Pi, pinocytotic vesicles; Th, platelet.
Figure 10–12 Clot formation. A, Injury to the endothelial lining releases various clotting factors and ceases the release of inhibitors of clotting. B, The increase in the size of the clot plugs the defect in the vessel wall and stops the loss of blood.
Figure 10–13 This close-up view of a clot forming in human blood shows beautifully how the different blood components are crammed into the plasma. (The scanning electron micrographs have been colored to emphasize the different structures.) Red blood cells are entangled with the fibrin (yellow) that makes up the scaffolding of the clot. The platelets (blue), which initiate clotting, are fragments of larger cells (megakaryocytes). (© 2000 by Dennis Kunkel, Ph.D.)
TABLE 10–4 Platelet Tubules and Granules
BONE MARROW
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 10–14 Light micrograph of human bone marrow displaying two megakaryocytes (arrows) (×270). Observe that marrow has a much greater population of nucleated cells than does peripheral blood. Also note the presence of epithelial reticular cells that resemble adipocytes. The decalcified bone with osteocytes located in lacunae is evident at the top of the photomicrograph.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Prenatal Hemopoiesis
Postnatal Hemopoiesis
Stem Cells, Progenitor Cells, and Precursor Cells
Figure 10–15 Light micrograph of a human bone marrow smear (×270).
TABLE 10–5 Cells of Hemopoiesis
Figure 10–16 Precursor cells in the formation of erythrocytes and granulocytes. The myeloblast and promyelocyte intermediaries in the formation of eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils are indistinguishable for the three cell types.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Hemopoietic Growth Factors (Colony-Stimulating Factors)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Erythropoiesis
TABLE 10–6 Hemopoietic Growth Factors
Figure 10–17 Light micrograph of bone marrow displaying all of the stages of red blood cell formation except for reticulocytes (×1325). B, basophilic erythroblast; E, erythrocyte; L, polychromatophilic erythroblast; O, orthochromatophilic erythroblast; P, proerythroblast.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Granulocytopoiesis
Figure 10–18 Electron micrograph of a proerythroblast, displaying its nucleolus (nuc) as well as the perinuclear cytoplasm (×14,000). Note that the nucleoplasm is relatively smooth in appearance and that the cytoplasm is rich in mitochondria and free ribosomes, indicating that the cell is active in protein synthesis.
Figure 10–19 Electron micrograph of an orthochromatophilic erythroblast (×21,300). Observe that the nucleus possesses a large amount of heterochromatin (H).
TABLE 10–7 Cells of the Erythropoietic Series
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Monocytopoiesis
Platelet Formation
Figure 10–20 Light micrographs of granulocytopoiesis displaying the various intermediary cell types (×1234). A, Myeloblast (M) and neutrophilic metamyelocyte (NM). B, Promyelocyte (P). C, Neutrophilic myelocyte (arrow). D, Neutrophilic metamyelocyte (NM), promyelocyte (P), and neutrophilic stab cell (arrowhead).
Lymphopoiesis
TABLE 10–8 Cells of the Neutrophilic Series
Figure 10–21 Electron micrograph of a megakaryocyte displaying segmentation in the formation of platelets (×3166). Although this cell possesses a single nucleus, it is lobulated, which gives the appearance that the cell possesses several nuclei.
Chapter 11 Circulatory System
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
General Structure of Blood Vessels
Vessel Tunics
Figure 11–1 A typical artery.
Tunica Intima
Tunica Media
Tunica Adventitia
Vasa Vasorum
Nerve Supply to Blood Vessels
Arteries
Classification of Arteries
Elastic Arteries
TABLE 11–1 Characteristics of Various Types of Arteries
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 11–2 Light micrograph of an elastic artery (×132). Observe the fenestrated membranes (FM), tunica media (TM), and tunica adventitia (TA).
Muscular Arteries
Figure 11–3 Light micrograph of a muscular artery (×132). Note the tunica adventitia (TA) and the internal (iEL) and external (xEL) elastic laminae within the thick tunica media (TM).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Arterioles
Figure 11–4 Light micrograph of an arteriole and a venule containing blood cells (×540). The arteriole (A) is well defined with a thick tunica media (TM). Nuclei of endothelial cells (N) bulge into the lumen (L). The venule (Ve) is poorly defined with a large poorly defined lumen containing red blood cells (RBC). The tunica media of the venule is not as robust as that in the arteriole.
Figure 11–5 Electron micrograph of an arteriole.
Figure 11–6 Scanning electron micrograph of an arteriole illustrating its compact layer of smooth muscle and its attendant nerve fibers (×4200).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Specialized Sensory Structures in Arteries
Carotid Sinus
Carotid Body
Aortic Bodies
Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Normal and Pathological Vascular Changes
Arteriosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
Capillaries
General Structure of Capillaries
Figure 11–7 Light micrograph of a capillary in the monkey cerebellum (×270) A capillary (Ca) is present in the field of view, and red blood cells (RBC) are evident in its lumen (L). Note the nucleus (arrow) of an endothelial cell bulging into the lumen.
Figure 11–8 Electron micrograph of a continuous capillary in the rat submandibular gland (×13,000). The pericyte shares the endothelial cell’s basal lamina.
Figure 11–9 Electron micrograph of a testicular capillary. CL, capillary lumen; MC, myoid cell; E, nucleus of endothelial cell. Arrows represent the basal lamina.
Figure 11–10 Scanning electron micrograph of a capillary displaying pericytes on its surface (×5000).
Classification of Capillaries
Figure 11–11 Electron micrograph of a fenestrated capillary and its pericyte in cross section. Note that the capillary endothelial cells and the pericyte share the same basal lamina.
Continuous Capillaries
Fenestrated Capillaries
Figure 11–12 The three types of capillaries: continuous, fenestrated, and sinosoidal (discontinuous).
Sinusoidal Capillaries
Regulation of Blood Flow into a Capillary Bed
Arteriovenous Anastomoses
Glomera
Central Channel
Histophysiology of Capillaries
Figure 11–13 The control of blood flow through a capillary bed. The central channel, composed of the metarteriole on the arterial side and the thoroughfare channel on the venous side, can bypass the capillary bed by closure of the precapillary sphincters.
Figure 11–14 The various methods of transport across capillary endothelia. A, Pinocytotic vesicles, which form on the luminal surface, traverse the endothelial cell, and their contents are released on the opposite surface into the connective tissue spaces. B, Trans Golgi network–derived vesicles possessing clathrin coats and receptor molecules fuse with the luminal surface of the endothelial cells and pick up specific ligands from the capillary lumen. They then detach and traverse the endothelial cell, fuse with the membrane of the opposite surface, and release their contents into the connective tissue spaces. C, In regions where the endothelial cells are highly attenuated, the pinocytotic (or trans Golgi network–derived) vesicles may fuse with each other to form transient fenestrations through the entire thickness of the endothelial cell, permitting material to travel between the lumen and the connective tissue spaces. (A-C, Adapted from Simionescu N, Simionescu M: In Ussing H, Bindslev, N, Sten-Knudsen O [eds]: Water Transport Across Epithelia. Copenhagen, Munksgaard, 1981.)
Veins
TABLE 11–2 Characteristics of Veins
Classification of Veins
Venules and Small Veins
Figure 11–15 Large venule in guinea pig skin harvested 60 minutes after intradermal injection of 10−5 M of N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine. Many neutrophils and a single eosinophil (eos) are captured at various stages of attachment to and extravasation across vascular endothelium and underlying pericytes (p). Two neutrophils (joined arrows), one in another lumen and another partway across the endothelium, are tethered together. Another neutrophil (long arrow) has projected a cytoplasmic process into an underlying endothelial cell. Other neutrophils (arrowheads) and the eosinophil have crossed the endothelial cell barrier but remain superficial to pericytes, forming dome-like structures that bulge into the vascular lumen (L). Still another neutrophil (open arrow) that has already crossed the endothelium has extended a process into the basal lamina and indents an underlying pericyte. Other neutrophils (n) have crossed both the endothelial cell and pericyte barriers and have entered the surrounding connective tissues. Bar, 10 mm.
Medium Veins
Large Veins
Valves of Veins
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Heart
Figure 11–16 Diagram of the heart showing locations of the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes, Purkinje fibers, and bundle of His.
Layers of the Heart Wall
Endocardium
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Myocardium
Figure 11–17 Light micrograph of Purkinje fibers. Cardiac muscle (CM) appears very dark, whereas Purkinje fibers (PF) with their solitary nuclei (N) appear light with this stain. Slender connective tissue elements (CT) surround the Purkinje fibers (×270).
Figure 11–18 Electron micrograph of a cardiac muscle cell containing clusters of vesicles with atrial natriuretic peptide.
Epicardium
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Cardiac Skeleton
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM
Figure 11–19 Diagram of ultrastructure of a lymphatic capillary.
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
Figure 11–20 Light micrograph of a lymph vessel in the villus core of the small intestine is known as a lacteal (L) (×270). Observe endothelium lining the lacteal (arrows).
Lymphatic Ducts
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 12 Lymphoid (Immune) System
OVERVIEW OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
The Innate Immune System
TABLE 12–1 Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in this Chapter
TABLE 12–2 Toll-Like Receptors and Their Putative Functions
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
The Adaptive Immune System
Immunogens and Antigens
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Clonal Selection and Expansion
Immunological Tolerance
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Immunoglobulins
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 12–1 An antibody and its regions.
Classes of Immunoglobulins
Cells of the Adaptive and Innate Immune Systems
B Lymphocytes
TABLE 12–3 Properties of Human Immunoglobulins
T Lymphocytes
TABLE 12–4 Selected Surface Markers Involved in the Immune Process
Naïve T Cells
Memory T Cells
Effector T cells
T-HELPER CELLS
CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTES
T REG CELLS
NATURAL T KILLER CELLS
Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules
Loading Epitopes on MHC I Molecules
Loading Epitopes on MHC II Molecules
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
TABLE 12–5 Origin and Selected Functions of Some Cytokines
Interaction among the Lymphoid Cells
Figure 12–2 The interaction between B cells and a T-helper cell (TH2 cell) in a thymus-dependent, antigen-induced, B memory, and plasma cell formation. CD, cluster of differentiation molecule; IL, interleukin; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor.
T-Helper Cell–Mediated (TH2 cells) Humoral Immune Response
T-Helper Cell–Mediated (TH1 cells) Killing of Virally Transformed Cells
Figure 12–3 T-helper cell (TH1 cell) activation of cytotoxic T cells in killing virus-transformed cells. APC, antigen-presenting cell; CD, cluster of differentiation molecule; CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte; IFN-γ, interferon-gamma; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.
TH1 Cells Assist Macrophages in Killing Bacteria
Figure 12–4 Macrophage activation by T cells. CD, cluster of differentiation molecule; IL, interleukin; IFN-γ, interferon-gamma; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
LYMPHOID ORGANS
Thymus
Thymic Cortex
Figure 12–5 Diagram of the thymus demonstrating its blood supply and histological arrangement.
Figure 12–6 Light micrograph of a lobule of the thymus (×124). The peripheral cortex (C) stains darker than the central medulla (M) that is distinguished by the presence of Hassall’s corpuscles (H).
Medulla
Vascular Supply
Histophysiology of the Thymus
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Lymph Nodes
Figure 12–7 A typical lymph node.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Lymph Node Cortex
Lymphoid Nodules
Figure 12–8 Light micrograph of the lymph node cortex (×132), displaying the subcapsular sinus (S), a secondary lymphoid nodule with its corona (C), germinal center (G), and the paracortex (P).
Paracortex
Medulla
Figure 12–9 Light micrograph of the lymph node medulla (×132) with its medullary sinusoids (S), medullary cords (C), and trabecula (T).
Vascularization of the Lymph Node
Histophysiology of Lymph Nodes
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Spleen
Figure 12–10 Schematic diagram of the spleen. Top, Low-magnification view of white pulp and red pulp. Bottom, Higher-magnification view of the central arteriole and its branches.
Figure 12–11 Silver-stained photomicrograph of the reticular fiber architecture of the spleen (×132). Note the capsule (Ca) and lymphoid nodule (Ln).
Vascular Supply of the Spleen
Figure 12–12 Open and closed circulation in the spleen.
White Pulp and Marginal Zone
Figure 12–13 Light micrograph of the white pulp and marginal zone of the spleen (×116). G, germinal center; M, marginal zone. Note the central artery (arrow).
Red Pulp
Figure 12–14 Scanning electron micrograph of the marginal zone and adjoining red pulp of the spleen (×680). Note the periarterial flat reticular cells (arrows). A, central artery; BC, marginal zone bridging channel; MZ, marginal zone; PA, penicillar artery; RP, red pulp; S, venous sinus.
Histophysiology of the Spleen
Figure 12–15 Scanning electron micrograph of sinusoidal lining cells bounded by splenic cords (×500). C, splenic cords; S, venous sinuses; Sh, sheathed arteriole.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
Figure 12–16 Electron micrograph of a macrophage containing phagocytosed materials, including a crystalloid body. Mp, macrophage; Mit, cell undergoing mitosis; Lyc, lymphocyte; Eb, erythroblast; Ret, reticular fibers in the interstitial spaces; Ri, ribosome.
Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
The Tonsils
Figure 12–17 Transmission electron micrographs. A, ALPA vessel (L) of the interfollicular area full of lymphocytes that has an intraendothelial channel that includes lymphocytes (arrow) in the endothelial wall (×3000). Note the postcapillary high endothelium venula (HEV). B-D, Ultrathin serial sections that document various stages of lymphoctye migration through an intraendothelial channel composed of one (1) and two (2) endothelial cells (×9000)., lymphocyte.
Figure 12–18 Light micrograph of a lymphoid nodule (Ln) of the pharyngeal tonsil, displaying its pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (E) and a germinal center of the secondary nodule (×132).
Chapter 13 Endocrine System
HORMONES
PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS)
Blood Supply and Control of Secretion
Figure 13–1 The pituitary gland and its target organs. ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; ADH, antidiuretic hormone; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing hormone; TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone.
Figure 13–2 The pituitary gland and its circulatory system. ADH, antidiuretic hormone.
Adenohypophysis
Pars Distalis
TABLE 13–1 Physiological Effects of Pituitary Hormones
Figure 13–3 Light micrograph of the pituitary gland displaying chromophobes (C), acidophils (A), and basophils (B) (×470).
Chromophils
ACIDOPHILS
BASOPHILS
Figure 13–4 Light and electron micrographs of mouse adenohypophysis (×4000). Observe the mammotropes (cells 3, 6–9, 12–15) and somatotropes (cells 2, 5, 11), and note the secretory granules of these cells.
Chromophobes
Folliculostellate Cells
Pars Intermedia
Pars Tuberalis
Neurohypophysis
Hypothalamohypophyseal Tract
Pars Nervosa
Figure 13–5 Light micrograph of the pars nervosa of the pituitary gland displaying pituicytes (P) and Herring bodies (arrows) (×132). Herring bodies are the expanded terminals of the nerve fibers where the neurosecretory products, vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin are stored.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
THYROID GLAND
TABLE 13–2 Hormones and Functions of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, and Pineal Glands
Figure 13–6 The thyroid and parathyroid glands.
Cellular Organization
Figure 13–7 Light micrograph of the thyroid and parathyroid glands (×132). Observe the colloid-filled follicles (F) of the thyroid gland (TG) in the upper portion of the figure. At bottom is the parathyroid gland (PG), as evidenced by the presence of chief and oxyphil cells.
Follicular Cells (Principal Cells)
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)
Figure 13–8 Electron micrograph of a thyroid follicular cell bordering the colloid (dark area, upper left corner) (×10,700).
Figure 13–9 The synthesis and iodination of thyroglobulin (A) and release of thyroid hormone (B).
Release of Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)
Physiological Effects of Triiodothyronine and Thyroxine
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Parafollicular Cells (Clear Cells, C Cells)
PARATHYROID GLANDS
Parathyroid Cellular Organization
Chief Cells
Oxyphil Cells
Physiological Effect of Parathyroid Hormone
SUPRARENAL (ADRENAL) GLANDS
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Blood Supply to the Suprarenal Glands
Suprarenal Cortex
Figure 13–10 The suprarenal gland and its cell types.
Figure 13–11 Scanning electron micrograph of the rat adrenal gland demonstrating microcirculation in the cortex and medulla (×80).
Zona Glomerulosa
Zona Fasciculata
Figure 13–12 Light micrograph of the cortex of the suprarenal gland (×132). Observe the zona glomerulosa (G) and the zona fasciculata (F).
Zona Reticularis
Histophysiology of the Suprarenal Cortex
Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Weak Androgens
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Suprarenal Medulla
Figure 13–13 Light micrograph of the medulla of the suprarenal gland (×270). Note the chromaffin cells (CC) whose nucleus (N) houses a single nucleolus (n). Observe the rich arterial supply and venous drainage (V) of the suprarenal medulla.
Chromaffin Cells
Figure 13–14 Electron micrograph of baboon adrenal medulla (×14,000). The different osmiophilic densities of the vesicles may be a reflection of their maturational phases. ER, endoplasmic reticulum; H, high-electron-density vesicle; L, low-electron-density vesicle; M, mitochondrion; SG, small granule cell.
Histophysiology of the Suprarenal Medulla
PINEAL GLAND
Figure 13–15 Pineal gland (×132). The large, darkly staining structures are brain sand (BS) scattered among the pinealocytes (Pi). Neuroglial cells are present but difficult to distinguish at this magnification.
Pinealocytes
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Interstitial Cells
Histophysiology of the Pineal Gland
Chapter 14 Integument
SKIN
Epidermis
Figure 14–1 Comparison of thick skin and thin skin.
Keratinocytes
TABLE 14–1 Strata and Histological Features of Thick Skin
Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinativum)
Figure 14–2 Light micrograph of thick skin (×132). Observe the epidermis (E) and dermis (D) as well as the dermal ridges (DR) that are interdigitating with epidermal ridges (ER). Several blood vessels (BV) are present.
Stratum Spinosum
Figure 14–3 Light micrograph of thick skin demonstrating the stratum basale (SB) and stratum spinosum (SS) (×540).
Stratum Granulosum
Figure 14–4 Electron micrograph of the stratum spinosum (×6800). The tonofibrils (arrows) and the cytoplasmic processes are bridging the intercellular spaces.
Stratum Lucidum
Stratum Corneum
Nonkeratinocytes in the Epidermis
Langerhans Cells
Merkel Cells
Melanocytes
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 14–5 Electron micrograph of a Merkel cell (M) and its nerve terminal (NT) in an adult rat. (Scale bar = 0.5μm). Note the spine-like processes (asterisks) that project into the intercellular spaces of the stratum spinosum. Merkel cells form desmosomes (d) with cells of the stratum spinosum and share the basal lamina (bl) of cells of the stratum basale.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 14–6 Melanocytes and their function. RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Dermis (Corium)
Papillary Layer of the Dermis
Reticular Layer of the Dermis
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Epidermis-Dermis Interface
Histophysiology of Skin
Glands of the Skin
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Figure 14–7 Light micrograph of sweat gland showing secretory units (S) and ducts (d), some displaying a lumen (L) (×132).
Figure 14–8 An eccrine sweat gland and a sebaceous gland and their constituent cells.
Secretory Unit
DARK CELLS (MUCOID CELLS)
CLEAR CELLS
MYOEPITHELIAL CELLS
Duct
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Sebaceous Glands
Figure 14–9 Light micrograph showing human sebaceous glands (SG) and the nuclei (N) of their cells (×132). AP, arrector pili muscle.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Hair
Hair Follicles
Figure 14–10 Light micrograph of a longitudinal section of a hair follicle with its hair root (HR) and papilla (P) (×132). The dark areas (arrow) are pigment.
Figure 14–11 Light micrograph of hair follicles in cross section (×132). Observe the external root sheath (E), the internal root sheath (I), and the cortex (C).
Figure 14–12 The hair follicle.
Arrector Pili Muscles
Histophysiology of Hair
Figure 14–13 Scanning electron micrograph of monkey scalp that shows three hair shafts and their sebaceous glands surrounded by the dense, irregular, collagenous connective tissue of the dermis (×235).
Figure 14–14 Scanning electron micrograph of a hair from a monkey’s scalp (×1115).
Figure 14–15 Structure of the thumbnail.
Nails
Figure 14–16 Light micrograph of a longitudinal section through a fingernail (×14). Observes the dermis (D), hyponychium (Hy) and the nail bed (NB).
Chapter 15 Respiratory System
CONDUCTING PORTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nasal Cavity
Anterior Portion of the Nasal Cavity
TABLE 15–1 Divisions and Characteristic Features of the Respiratory System
Posterior Aspect of the Nasal Cavity
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Olfactory Region of the Nasal Cavity
Figure 15–1 Light micrograph of the human olfactory mucosa (×540). Observe that the olfactory cilia (Ci) are well represented and that the connective tissue displays the presence of Bowman’s glands. BC, basal cell; OC, olfactory cell; LP, lamina propria.
OLFACTORY CELLS
Figure 15–2 The olfactory epithelium, displaying basal, olfactory, and sustentacular cells. (Compare with Fig. 15–1.)
SUSTENTACULAR AND BASAL CELLS
Figure 15–3 Transmission electron micrograph of the apical region of the rat olfactory epithelium (×8260). Note the olfactory vesicles and the cilia projecting from them. (Compare with the Figs. 15–1 and 15–2.)
LAMINA PROPRIA
Histophysiology of the Nasal Cavity
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Paranasal Sinuses
Nasopharynx
Larynx
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Trachea
Mucosa
Figure 15–4 Light photomicrograph of the trachea in a monkey (×270). There are numerous cilia (Ci) as well as goblet cells (GC) in the epithelium. Also observe the mucous glands (MG) in the subepithelial connective tissue and the hyaline C-ring (HC) in the adventitia. L, lumen; PC, perichondrium.
Respiratory Epithelium
Figure 15–5 Transmission electron micrograph of monkey respiratory epithelium from the anterior nasal septum. Note the presence of goblet cells (gc), ciliated cells (c), basal cells (bc), and small granule mucous cells (smg).
Figure 15–6 Scanning electron micrograph of the human fetal trachea displaying ciliated and nonciliated cells (×5500).
Lamina Propria and Elastic Fibers
Submucosa
Adventitia
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Bronchial Tree
Primary (Extrapulmonary) Bronchi
Secondary and Tertiary (Intrapulmonary) Bronchi
Figure 15–7 The respiratory system, displaying bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar pores, and alveoli.
Bronchioles
Figure 15–8 Scanning electron micrograph of Clara cells and ciliated cuboidal cells of rat terminal bronchioles (×1817).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 15–9 Light photomicrograph of a bronchiole (×117). Note the presence of smooth muscle (SM) and the absence of cartilage in its wall. Observe that the entire structure is intrapulmonary and is surrounded by lung tissue. A, alveolus; E, epithelium; L, lumen.
Terminal Bronchioles
RESPIRATORY PORTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory Bronchioles
Alveolar Duct, Atrium, and Alveolar Sac
Figure 15–10 Light micrograph of a human respiratory bronchiole (R) giving rise to an alveolar duct (A). Respiratory bronchioles have definite walls with alveoli interjected. Alveolar ducts have no walls of their own; the ducts are created by neighboring alveoli.
Alveoli
Figure 15–11 A, A respiratory bronchiole, alveolar sac, alveolar pore, and alveoli. B, Interalveolar septum. C, Carbon dioxide uptake from body tissues by erythrocytes and plasma. D, Carbon dioxide release by erythrocytes and plasma in the lung. (Compare A with the alveolar duct shown in Fig. 15–10.)
Figure 15–12 Scanning electron micrograph of a rat lung displaying a bronchiole (b), small artery (v), and alveoli (d), some of which present alveolar pores.
Figure 15–13 Transmission electron micrograph of the interalveolar septum in a monkey. Note the presence of alveoli (a), erythrocytes (e) within capillaries (c), and alveolar macrophages (m). Filopodia (arrows) and alveolar pores (asterisks) are evident.
Type I Pneumocytes
Type II Pneumocytes
Figure 15–14 Transmission electron micrograph of the blood-gas barrier (×71,250). Note the presence of the alveolus (a), attenuated type I pneumocytes (ep), fused basal laminae (b), attenuated endothelial cell of the capillary (en) with pinocytotic vesicles (arrows), plasma (p), and an erythrocyte (r) within the capillary lumen.
Figure 15–15 A type II pneumocyte. (Compare with the type II pneumocyte shown in Fig. 15–16.)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 15–16 Transmission electron micrograph of a type II pneumocyte. Observe the centrally placed nucleus (N) flanked by several lamellar bodies. a, alveolus; c, capillaries; e, elastic fibers; En, nucleus of endothelial cell; f, collagen fibers. Arrows mark the blood-gas barrier; asterisk indicates a platelet.
Figure 15–17 Alveolar mocrophages (dust cells) in the human lung (×270). Dust cells (DC) appear as black spots on the image because they have phagocytosed dust particles that were present in the air spaces of the lung. A, alveolus.
Interalveolar Septum
Blood-Gas Barrier
Exchange of Gases between the Tissues and Lungs
Pleural Cavities and the Mechanism of Ventilation
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Gross Structure of the Lungs
Pulmonary Vascular and Lymphatic Supply
Pulmonary Nerve Supply
Chapter 16 Digestive System: Oral Cavity
ORAL MUCOSA: OVERVIEW
Lips
Teeth
Figure 16–1 A tooth in the oral cavity. Note the location of the vestibule between the lip and the labial aspect of the tooth enamel and the gingiva, as well as the oral cavity on the buccal aspect of the teeth and gingiva.
Mineralized Components
Enamel
Figure 16–2 A tooth and its surrounding structures. Note that the clinical crown is that portion of the crown that is visible in the oral cavity, whereas the anatomical crown extends from the cementoenamel junction to the occlusal surface of the tooth.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Dentin
Figure 16–3 Light micrograph of the crown and neck of a tooth (×14). Observe that this is a ground section (nondecalcified) and that the enamel (E) appears brown and the dentin (D) appears grayish in this preparation. The pulp (P) cavity occupies the center of the tooth.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Cementum
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Pulp
Figure 16–4 Light micrograph of the pulp of a tooth (×132). Note the three layers-odontoblastic zone (O), cell-poor (cell-free) zone (CF), cell-rich zone (CR)-and the core of the pulp (C).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Odontogenesis
Figure 16–5 Odontogenesis.
Bud Stage
Cap Stage
Bell Stage and Appositional Stage
Figure 16–6 An ameloblast and an odontoblast. Note that the odontoblastic process is very long and a large section of it has been cut out (white space).
Figure 16–7 Electron micrograph of rat incisor odontoblasts (×3416).
Root Formation
Structures Associated with Teeth
Periodontal Ligament
Figure 16–8 Light micrograph of tooth socket (bony alveolus). The periodontal ligament (L) is a dense, irregular, collagenous connective tissue located between the cementum (C) of the root and the bony alveolus (A) (×132).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Alveolus
Gingiva (Gums)
Palate
Tongue
Figure 16–9 The tongue and its lingual papillae.
Lingual Papillae
Figure 16–10 Lingual papillae and a taste bud.
TASTE BUDS
Figure 16–11 Light micrograph of monkey taste buds (×497). The taste bud (B) is completely within the epithelium and appears to be composed of several types of cells; however, these are the same cells at various times of their life cycle.
Figure 16–12 Low-power electron micrograph of a taste bud from the lamb epiglottis (×2353). B, basal cell; I, type I cell; II, type II cell; P, taste pore; Pg, perigemmal cell. Arrowheads represent nerve fibers; arrow represents synapse-like structure between a type I cell and a nerve fiber.
Chapter 17 Digestive System: Alimentary Canal
GENERAL PLAN OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
Alimentary Canal Histology
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis Externa
Figure 17–1 Alimentary tract. Layer contents are generalized.
Serosa and Adventitia
Innervation of the Digestive Tract
Enteric Nervous System
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Supply to the Gut
ESOPHAGUS
Esophageal Histology
Mucosa
Figure 17–2 Light micrograph of the esophagus (×17). Note that the lumen is lined by a relatively thick stratified squamous epithelium (E) that forms a well-developed rete apparatus with the underlying lamina propria (LP). The submucosa (S) is surrounded by a thick muscularis externa, composed of inner circular (IC) and outer longitudinal (OL) muscle layers.
Submucosa
Muscularis Externa and Adventitia
Esophageal Histophysiology
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
STOMACH
Gastric Histology
Figure 17–3 Cellular composition of the fundic stomach and fundic gland. The fundic glands open into the bottom of the gastric pits, and each gland is subdivided into an isthmus, a neck, and a base.
Fundic Mucosa
Epithelium of the Stomach
Figure 17–4 A, Light micrograph of the mucosa of the fundic stomach (×132). The mucosa is composed of the simple columnar epithelium (E), the connective tissue lamina propria (LP), and the muscularis mucosae (MM). A little section of the submucosa (S) is evident at the bottom left hand corner of the light micrograph. B, Light micrograph of fundic glands (×270). Note that the glands are very tightly packed, and much of the connective tissue is compressed into thin wafers occupied by capillaries. C, chief cell; M, mucous neck cell; P, parietal cell.
Lamina Propria of the Stomach
FUNDIC GLANDS
Mucous Neck Cells
Figure 17–5 Electron micrograph of a surface lining cell from the body of a mouse stomach (×11,632). G, Golgi apparatus; J, junctional complex; L, lumen; m, mitochondria exhibiting large spherical densities known as nodules (n); mv, microvillus; N, nucleus; ov, oval secretory granules; P, intercellular projections; rER, rough endoplasmic reticulum; sp, spherical granules.
TABLE 17–1 Distribution of Cell Types in Fundic Glands
Regenerative (Stem) Cells
Figure 17–6 Electron micrograph of a mucous neck cell from the body of a mouse stomach. Inset: Secretory granule, (c). c, dense-cored granule; D, desmosome; G, Golgi apparatus; J, junctional complex; L, lumen; m, mitochondria; mg, mucous granules; mv, microvillus; N, nucleus; rER, rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Parietal (Oxyntic) Cells
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 17–7 Electron micrograph of a parietal cell from the body of a mouse stomach (×14,000). Go, Golgi apparatus; Mi, mitochondria; Ox, nucleus of oxyphil cell; Ve, tubulovesicular apparatus; Vi, microvilli.
Chief (Zymogenic) Cells
Figure 17–8 Scanning electron microscopy of the fractured surface of a resting parietal cell (×50,000). The cytoplasmic matrix is removed by the aldehyde-osmium-DMSO-osmium method (or A-ODO method), exposing the cytoplasmic membranes. The tubulocisternal network (TC) is connected to the intracellular canaliculus (IC) lined with microvilli (MV). Inset: A higher magnification of the area indicated by the arrow (×100,000).
DNES Cells (APUD or Enteroendocrine Cells)
Figure 17–9 Electron micrograph of a chief cell from the fundus of a mouse stomach (×11,837). BM, basement membrane; G, Golgi apparatus; L, lumen; m, mitochondria; N, nucleus; nu, nucleolus; rER, rough endoplasmic reticulum; ZC, zymogenic (chief) cell; zg, zymogen granules;.
TABLE 17–2 Diffuse Neuroendocrine System (DNES) Cells and Hormones of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Muscularis Mucosae of the Stomach
Figure 17–10 Electron micrograph of a DNES cell from the body of a mouse stomach. G, Golgi apparatus; g, secretory granules; N, nucleus; nu, nucleolus; m, mitochondria; rER, rough endoplasmic reticulum;
Differences in the Mucosa of the Cardiac and Pyloric Regions
Submucosa of the Stomach
Figure 17–11 Light micrograph of the pyloric stomach (×132). The gastric pits are much deeper here than in the cardiac or fundic regions of the stomach. P, gastric pits; LP, lamina propria; MM, muscularis mucosae.
Muscularis Externa
TABLE 17–3 Histology of the Alimentary Canal
Gastric Histophysiology
Emptying of Gastric Contents
Gastric Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Production
Figure 17–12 Parietal cell. A, Well-developed tubulovesicular apparatus in the resting cell. B, Mechanism of hydrochloric acid release. C, Numerous microvilli in the active cell.
Mechanism of Gastric Hydrochloric Acid Production
Inhibition of Hydrochloric Acid Release
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
SMALL INTESTINE
Common Histological Features
Modifications of the Luminal Surface
Intestinal Mucosa
Epithelium
SURFACE ABSORPTIVE CELLS
Figure 17–13 Mucosa, villi, crypts of Lieberkühn, and component cells of the small intestine. Note that the crypts of Lieberkühn open into the intervillar spaces. There is a solitary lymphoid nodule in the lamina propria.
GOBLET CELLS
Figure 17–14 Scanning electron micrographs of villi from the mouse ileum. A, Observe the villi and the openings of the crypts of Lieberkühn in the intervillar spaces (×160). B, Note that the villus is fractured, revealing its core of connective tissue and migrating cells (×500).
DNES CELLS
M CELLS (MICROFOLD CELLS)
Lamina Propria
CRYPTS OF LIEBERKüHN
Figure 17–15 Light micrograph of the duodenal mucosa, displaying the simple columnar epithelium (E), the cellular lamina propria (LP) with its lacteals of villi, and the muscularis mucosae (×132). The submucosa houses Brunner’s glands, a clear indication that this is a section of the duodenum. CL, crypts of Lieberkühn; Lu, lumen.
Muscularis Mucosae
Submucosa
BRUNNER’S GLANDS
Figure 17–16 Surface absorptive cells from a villus of the mouse jejunum. A, Low-magnification electron micrograph displaying two goblet cells (Gc) and numerous surface absorptive cells (Su) (×1744). Note the striated border (Sb) facing the lumen (Lu). Nuclei (Nu) and cell boundaries (Cb) are clearly evident. Observe also that the epithelium is separated from the lamina propria by a well-defined basement membrane (Bm). B, A higher-magnification electron micrograph of two adjoining surface absorptive cells (×10,500). The striated border (Sb) is clearly composed of numerous microvilli that project into the lumen (Lu). The adjoining cell membranes (Cm) are close to each other. Mi, mitochondria; Ly, lysosomes; Re, rough endoplasmic reticulum; Ve, vesicles; asterisk indicates membrane-bound lipid droplets. C, Electron micrograph of the basal aspect of the surface absorptive cells (×11,200). Bm, basement membrane; Lp, lamina propria; Mi, mitochondria; Ve, vesicles; asterisk indicates chylomicrons.
Muscularis Externa and Serosa
Lymphatic and Vascular Supply of the Small Intestine
Figure 17–17 Light micrograph of the mucosa of a monkey jejunum (×132). Observe the well-developed villi, and note that there are no Peyer’s patches in the lamina propria nor are there any Brunner’s glands in the submucosa; therefore, this must be a section of the jejunum. CL, crypts of Lieberkühn; Ic, inner circular muscle layer; MM, muscularis mucosae; Ol, outer longitudinal muscle layer; S, submucosa.
Regional Differences
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Small Intestine Histophysiology
Immunological Activity of the Lamina Propria
Figure 17–18 Electron micrograph of a Paneth cell from the rabbit ileum (×5900). Note the large, round granules in the cytoplasm of the Paneth cell.
Secretory Activity of the Small Intestine
Figure 17–19 An M cell and its immunological relationship to the alimentary canal. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is produced by plasma cells in the lamina propria. Some IgA then enters the lumen of the duodenum directly via the surface absorptive cells. Most of the IgA enters the hepatic portal system and hepatocytes of the liver complex it with secretory protein and deliver it into the gallbladder, where it is stored with bile. As bile is released into the duodenum, it will be rich in IgA. Therefore, most of the IgA enters the lumen of the duodenum via the bile.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Movement of the Small Intestine
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Digestion
Absorption
Figure 17–20 Electron micrograph of M cells of the mouse colon (×6665). Observe the electron-dense M cells surrounding the electron-lucent lymphocytes.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 17–21 Fat absorption, fat processing, and chylomicron release by surface absorptive cells. SER, smooth endoplasmic reticulum; RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum.
LARGE INTESTINE
Colon
Colon Histology
Figure 17–22 Colon, crypts of Lieberkühn, and associated cells.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 17–23 Light micrograph of the monkey colon (×132). It appears as if most of the cells of the epithelial lining are goblet cells (G), but in fact the surface absorptive cells constitute the largest population of this epithelium. CL, crypts of Lieberkühn; LP, lamina propria; ME, muscularis externa; MM, muscularis mucosae; O, open lumen of crypts of Lieberkühn; SM, submucosa.
Colon Histophysiology
Figure 17–24 Light micrograph of the crypts of Lieberkühn of the monkey colon (×270). Observe that the base of the crypt displays DNES cells whose granules are basally oriented. E, diffuse neuroendocrine system (DNES) cell; L, lumen of crypt; P, plasma cell.
Rectum and Anal Canal
Figure 17–25 Scanning electron micrograph of a monkey colon (×516). Observe the opening of the crypts.
Anal Mucosa
Anal Submucosa and Muscularis Externa
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Appendix
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 18 Digestive System: Glands
MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
Anatomy of Salivary Glands
Secretory Portions
Figure 18–1 Salivary gland acini, ducts, and cell types.
Figure 18–2 Light micrograph of the monkey sublingual gland displaying mucous acini (M) with serous demilunes (S). Note that serous demilunes may be fixation artifacts (×540).
Duct Portions
Figure 18–3 Electron micrograph of the rat sublingual gland displaying serous and mucous granules in the cytoplasm of the acinar cells (×5400). Note that the nuclei of serous cells are round, whereas the nuclei of mucous cells are flattened. Also observe that the serous secretory products are present as round, dense, dark structures. The mucous secretory products are mostly dissolved and appear light in color and spongy.
Histophysiology of the Salivary Glands
Role of Autonomic Nerve Supply in Salivary Secretion
Properties of Individual Salivary Glands
Parotid Gland
Sublingual Gland
Submandibular Gland
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
PANCREAS
Figure 18–4 In this light micrograph, the submandibular gland is characterized by the numerous cross-sectional profiles of striated ducts (×132). Note that the ducts appear pale pink in color, and many display a very small but clear lumen. The mucous secretory product has a frothy appearance. Se, septum; SA, serous acinus; SD, serous demilune; M, mucous cells of an acinus.
Exocrine Pancreas
Figure 18–5 The pancreas with secretory acini, their cell types, and the endocrine islets of Langerhans.
Secretory and Duct Portions
Figure 18–6 Light micrograph of the monkey exocrine pancreas (×540). Observe that the acini in section appear to be round structures and that much of the acinar cells have many secretory granules, known as zymogen granules. CC, centroacinar cells; Se, septum; SA, serous acinus.
Histophysiology of the Exocrine Pancreas
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Endocrine Pancreas
Cells Composing the Islets of Langerhans
Figure 18–7 Light micrograph of the human pancreas displaying secretory acini and an islet of Langerhans (I) (×132). The histologic difference between the exocrine and endocrine pancreas is very evident in this photomicrograph because the islet is much larger than individual acini and is much lighter in color. Se, septum; SA, serous acinus.
Histophysiology of the Endocrine Pancreas
TABLE 18–1 Cells and Hormones of the Islets of Langerhans
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 18–8 Electron micrograph of α cells (A) and β cells (B) in the rabbit islet of Langerhans (×5040). Note that the granules of α cells are much more numerous, more tightly packed, smaller, and denser than those of β cells.
LIVER
TABLE 18–2 Comparison of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
General Hepatic Structure and Vascular Supply
Figure 18–9 Liver. A, Gross anatomy of the liver. B, Liver lobules displaying the portal areas and the central vein. C, Portion of the liver lobule displaying the portal area, liver plates, sinusoids, and bile canaliculi.
Figure 18–10 Light micrograph of a dog liver displaying the central vein (CV), liver plates (LP), and sinusoids (Si) (×270). This animal was injected with India ink that was phagocytosed by Kupffer cells (KC), which consequently appear as black spots.
The Three Concepts of Liver Lobules
Figure 18–11 The three types of lobules in the liver: classical lobule, portal lobule, and hepatic acinus.
Hepatic Sinusoids and Hepatocyte Plates
Perisinusoidal Space of Disse
Figure 18–12 Light micrograph of a canine liver demonstrating plates of hepatocytes, sinusoids (Si), and India ink–containing Kupffer cells (K) (×540). N, nucleus.
Hepatic Ducts
Figure 18–13 Electron micrograph of the shrew liver. A, Observe the sinusoid, with its sinusoidal lining cell (E), Kupffer cell (K), and a small region of a lipid droplet (Li)–containing Ito cell (×8885). B, A higher magnification of the hepatocyte displays its numerous microvilli (arrowheads) protruding into the space of Disse and the process of pinocytosis (arrow) (×29,670).
Hepatocytes
Domains of Hepatocyte Plasmalemma
LATERAL DOMAINS
Figure 18–14 A hepatocyte and its sinusoidal and lateral domains. ER, endoplasmic reticulum.
SINUSOIDAL DOMAINS
Hepatocyte Organelles and Inclusions
Figure 18–15 Low-magnification electron micrograph of a mouse liver (×2535). Most of the liver’s surface is covered by peritoneum (Pe), which overlies the collagenous capsule (Co) of the liver. Observe the sinusoids (Si), Kupffer cells (Ku), and glycogen deposits (Gl) in the hepatocyte (HC) cytoplasm. Bile canaliculi are denoted by asterisks (*). Mi, mitochondria; Pt, peritoneal cavity.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 18–16 Electron micrograph of a rat hepatocyte (×2500).
Histophysiology of the Liver
Bile Manufacture
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Figure 18–17 Electron micrograph of glycogen and lipid deposits in the pericentral hepatocyte of a rat. Bar = 1 μm. Inset: Glycogen particles at a higher magnification. Bar = 1 μm.
Lipid Metabolism
Carbohydrate and Protein Metabolism
Figure 18–18 Hepatocyte function. SER, smooth endoplasmic epithelium. A, Protein synthesis and carbohydrate storage. B, Secretion of bile acids and bilirubin.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Vitamin Storage
Degradation of Hormones and Detoxification of Drugs and Toxins
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Immune Function
Liver Regeneration
GALLBLADDER
Structure of the Gallbladder
Figure 18–19 Light micrograph of an empty gallbladder (×132). Observe that the mucosa of the gallbladder is highly folded, indicating that it is empty. Note that the lumen of the gallbladder is lined by a simple columnar epithelium (Ep).
Extrahepatic Ducts
TABLE 18–3 The Sphincter of Oddi and Its Component Parts
Histophysiology of the Gallbladder
Figure 18–20 Electron micrograph of the human gallbladder diverticulum displaying brush cells (A) and clear cells (C) of the epithelium. d, interdigitations; g, granules; L, lumen; M, clear cells with mucoid granules; V, erythrocytes. Arrows indicate Golgi apparatus. Bar = 2 μm. Upper inset: Clear cell microvilli. Bar = 0.5 μm. Lower inset: Brush cell microvilli. Bar = 1.0 μm.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 19 Urinary System
KIDNEY
Overview of Kidney Structure
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Uriniferous Tubules
Figure 19–1 A, Hemisected kidney illustrating morphology and circulation. B, Arrangement of cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.
Figure 19–1, cont’d C, The uriniferous tubule and its vascular supply and drainage. The juxtamedullary nephron extends much deeper into the medulla than does the cortical nephron.
Nephrons
Renal Corpuscle
Figure 19–2 Light micrograph of the kidney cortex in a monkey, illustrating renal corpuscles (R), medullary ray (M), and cross-sectional profiles of the uriniferous tubules (×132). A portion of the urinary space (S) is clearly evident at the periphery of the renal corpuscle and is bound by the simple squamous epithelium composing the parietal layer (P) of Bowman’s capsule.
Figure 19–3 Light micrograph of the monkey renal corpuscle surrounded by cross-sectional profiles of proximal and distal tubules (×270). The macula densa (M) and the parietal layer (P) of Bowman’s capsule are clearly evident as it encloses the clear space, a part of the urinary space (S).
Figure 19–4 A renal corpuscle and its juxtaglomerular apparatus.
GLOMERULUS
Basal Lamina
Figure 19–5 Relationship between the intraglomerular mesangial cell, podocytes, and glomerulus.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
VISCERAL LAYER OF BOWMAN’S CAPSULE
Filtration Process
Figure 19–6 Electron micrograph of a region of the human kidney glomerulus containing red blood cells (×4594). Note the association between the intraglomerular mesangial cell and the podocytes around the glomerular capillaries. BS, Bowman’s space; CL, capillary lumen; E, endothelial cell; M, mesangial cells; V, podocyte.
Figure 19–7 The interrelationship of the glomerulus, podocytes, pedicels, and basal laminae.
Figure 19–8 Scanning electron micrograph of podocytes (P) and their processes from the kidney of a rat (×4700).
Figure 19–9 Scanning electron micrograph of the rat renal cortex displaying a renal corpuscle with its glomerulus (g) (×543). The renal corpuscle below it does not have its glomerulus, so the urinary pole (arrow) is evident. c, capillaries; d, distal convoluted tubule; p, proximal convoluted tubule; v, blood vessels.
Figure 19–10 Electron micrograph of pedicels (P) and diaphragms bridging the filtration slits of a glomerulus in a rat (×86,700). BS, Bowman’s space; CL, capillary lumen. Note the laminae rara externa (short arrow) and the filtration slit diaphragm (long arrow).
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Proximal Tubule
Figure 19–11 A drawing of the uriniferous tubule and its cross-sectional morphology.
Figure 19–12 Electron micrograph of the S1 segment of the rat proximal tubule (×7128).
Thin Limbs of Henle’s Loop
Distal Tubule
TABLE 19–1 Cell Types Composing the Thin Limbs of Henle’s Loop
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
Figure 19–13 Electron micrograph of the distal convoluted tubule (×8100).
Figure 19–14 The juxtaglomerular apparatus.
Figure 19–15 Electron micrograph of the juxtaglomerular apparatus from the kidney of a rabbit (×2552). The macula densa (MD), juxtaglomerular cells (JG) (containing electron-dense granules), and extraglomerular mesangial (EM) cells are displayed.
Collecting Tubules
Figure 19–16 The medulla of the kidney displays the simple cuboidal epithelium of the collecting tubules (CT) as well as the simple squamous epithelium of the thin limbs of Henle’s loop (HL) and the endothelial cells (E) of the vasa recta. Note that the connective tissue components are sparse and consist mostly of vascular elements (×270).
Figure 19–17 Electron micrograph of a collecting tubule from a rabbit kidney (×4790).
Renal Interstitium
Renal Circulation
Arterial Supply
Figure 19–18 Electron micrograph of the arteria recta of a rat kidney.
Venous Drainage
Figure 19–19 Light micrograph of injected kidney displaying the rich vascular supply of the kidney cortex (×132). The glomeruli (G) are clearly evident.
Lymphatic Supply of the Kidney
Renal Innervation
General Functions of the Kidney
Mechanism of Urine Formation
Filtration in the Renal Corpuscle
Resorption in the Proximal Tubule
Henle’s Loop and the Countercurrent Multiplier System
Figure 19–20 Histophysiology of the uriniferous tubule. A, Diuresis (in the absence of antidiuretic hormone [ADH]). B, Antidiuresis (in the presence of ADH). Numbers indicate milliosmoles per liter. Areas outlined by a thick line indicate that the tubule is impermeable to water. In the presence of ADH, the collecting tubule changes so that it becomes permeable to water and the concentration in the interstitium of the inner medulla increases. The vasa recta is simplified in this drawing because it encompasses the entire uriniferous tubule (see Fig. 19–1).
Monitoring the Filtrate in the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
TABLE 19–2 Effects of Angiotensin II
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Loss of Water and Urea from Filtrate in Collecting Tubules
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Vasa Recta and Countercurrent Exchange System
EXCRETORY PASSAGES
TABLE 19–3 Structure and Function of the Uriniferous Tubule
Calyces
TABLE 19–4 Types of Aquaporins and Their Locations In The Uriniferous Tubule
Figure 19–21 Histophysiology of the vasa recta. Numbers represent milliosmoles per liter. The arteriola recta is smaller in diameter than the venula recta.
Ureter
Urinary Bladder
Figure 19–22 Low-power light micrograph of the monkey urinary bladder (×58). Observe the epithelium (E), the subepithelial connective tissue (CT), and the muscular coat (M) of the bladder.
Figure 19–23 Light micrograph of transitional epithelium from the bladder of a monkey (×540). Observe the very large, dome-shaped cells abutting the lumen. LP, lamina propria.
Urethra
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Female Urethra
Male Urethra
Chapter 20 Female Reproductive System
OVARIES
Ovarian Cortex
Figure 20–1 Female reproductive tract. The ovary is sectioned to show the developing follicles. The uterus and fallopian tube are both open to display their respective lumina.
Phenotypic Sexual Development during Embryogenesis
The Ovarian Cortex at Onset of Puberty
Figure 20–2 Ovarian structure (A) and follicular development (B). Note the corpus luteum and corpus albicans. All the stages of follicular development, from the primordial follicle stage to the graafian follicle stage, are presented.
Ovarian Follicles
Figure 20–3 Light micrograph of the ovarian cortex demonstrating mostly primordial follicles (P), which are primary oocytes surrounded by follicular cells (×270). The germinal epithelium (GE) and the ovarian stroma (St) of the cortex also are evident in this micrograph.
Primordial Follicles
Primary Follicles
TABLE 20–1 Stages of Ovarian Follicular Development
Figure 20–4 Electron micrograph of a primordial ovarian follicle of a rat ovary (×6200). Observe the oocyte surrounded by follicular cells.
Secondary (Antral) Follicles
Figure 20–5 Light micrograph of a secondary follicle (×132). Observe the primary oocyte and the follicular fluid surrounded by membrana granulosa. Note also the presence of the basement membrane between the granulosa cells (G) and the theca interna (T). LF, liquor folliculi.
TABLE 20–2 Types of Granulosa Cells
Graafian (Mature) Follicles
Ovulation
Corpus Luteum
Granulosa-Lutein Cells
Figure 20–6 Light micrograph of the corpus luteum (×132). Note the difference between the large granulosa-lutein (G) and small theca-lutein (T) cells.
Theca-Lutein Cells
Degeneration of Corpus Luteum
Figure 20–7 Electron micrograph of a rhesus monkey granulosa-lutein cell with its large acentric nucleus and numerous organelles (×6800). G, Golgi apparatus; L, lipid droplet; M, mitochondria (displayed at a higher magnification in inset, lower left); N, nucleus; RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum; SER, smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Corpus Albicans
Atretic Follicles
Ovarian Medulla
Summary of Hormonal Regulation of Ovarian Function
Figure 20–8 Hormonal interactions between the hypothalamo-pituitary axis and the female reproductive system. FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing hormone; LHRH, luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone. Note that folliostatin and inhibin both suppress FSH release, whereas activin facilitates its release.
TABLE 20–3 Major Hormones Involved in the Female Reproductive System
TABLE 20–4 Pulsatility Rate of LHRH Release
Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)
Figure 20–9 Light micrograph of the oviduct in cross section (×132). Observe the outer longitudinal (O) and inner circular (I) muscle layers and the mucosa (M). The mucosa is thrown into folds that reduce the size of the lumen.
Uterus
Body and Fundus
Figure 20–10 Electron micrograph of the oviduct epithelium (×40,000). Note the bulbous apices of the peg cells as well as the cilia of the ciliated cells.
Endometrium
Figure 20–11 The uterine endometrium, showing the basal and functional layers. The basal layer is supplied by the straight arteries, whereas the functional layer is served by the coiled vessels known as helical arteries.
Myometrium
Uterine Serosa and Adventitia
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Cervix
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Phase (Days 1 to 4)
Figure 20–12 Correlation of events in follicular development, ovulation, hormonal interrelationships, and the menstrual cycle. Note that the levels of estrogen and luteinizing hormone (LH) are highest at the time of ovulation. FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone.
Proliferative (Follicular) Phase (Days 4 to 14)
Secretory (Luteal) Phase (Days 15 to 28)
Fertilization, Implantation, and Placental Development
Fertilization
Figure 20–13 Light micrograph of the endometrium (E) of the uterus in the luteal phase (×132). Note the lumina (L) of the glands surrounded by stromal cells (St).
Figure 20–14 Process of fertilization, zygote formation, morula and blastocyst development, and implantation.
Figure 20–15 Scanning electron micrograph of fertilization (×5700). A large number of spermatozoa are trying to make their way through the cells of the corona radiata, but only a single spermatozoon will be able to fertilize the egg.
Implantation
Placenta Development
Figure 20–16 Chorion and decidua formation; inset shows circulation within the placenta.
Figure 20–17 Light micrograph of cross sections of the chorionic villi of the placenta (×270). Observe the cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts covering the chorionic villi. Ca, capillary; IS, intervillous space; SK, syncytial knot.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Vagina
External Genitalia
Mammary Glands
Resting (Nonsecreting) Mammary Glands
Figure 20–18 Comparison of the glandular differences between an inactive and a lactating breast. Inset shows a longitudinal section of a gland and duct of the active mammary gland.
Lactating (Active) Mammary Glands
Figure 20–19 Electron micrograph of an acinar cell from the lactating mammary gland of the rat (×9000). Note the large lipid droplets (L), abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Golgi apparatus (G). F, folds of the basal plasmalemma; m, mitochondria; MV, microvilli; Sg, secretory granules;
Figure 20–20 Light micrograph of the human mammary gland (×132). Observe the crowded alveoli (Al), and note that various regions of the gland are in different stages of the secretory process. CT, connective tissue.
Areola and Nipple
Mammary Gland Secretions
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 21 Male Reproductive System
TESTES
General Structure and Vascular Supply
Figure 21–1 The male reproductive system.
Figure 21–2 The testis and epididymis. Lobules and their contents are not drawn to scale.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Seminiferous Tubules
Sertoli Cells
Figure 21–3 Light micrograph of the capsule of a monkey testis, with cross-sectional profiles of blood vessels (BV), lumen (L), septa (S), seminiferous epithelium (SE), seminiferous tubules (ST), tunica albuginea (TA), and tunica vasculosa (TV) (×132).
Figure 21–4 Seminiferous tubule (×540). Note the seminiferous epithelium (SE), pale spermatogonia A (Ap), dark spermatogonia A (Ad), spermatogonia B (B), Sertoli cell (SC), and spermatozoa (Sz).
Figure 21–5 Seminiferous epithelium.
Figure 21–6 Electron micrograph of the basal compartmentof the seminiferous epithelium (×15,000). The testis has been perfused with an electron-dense tracer (lanthanum nitrate) to demonstrate that the occluding junctions (arrows) between adjacent Sertoli cells prevent the tracer from entering the adluminal compartment.
Spermatogenic Cells
Differentiation of Spermatogonia
Meiotic Division of Spermatocytes
Figure 21–7 Spermatogenesis, displaying the intercellular bridges that maintain the syncytium during differentiation and maturation.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Transformation of Spermatids (Spermiogenesis)
GOLGI PHASE
CAP PHASE
Figure 21–8 Electron micrograph of the cap stage of a rodent spermatid (×18,000). AC, acrosome; G, Golgi apparatus; N, nucleus; NE, nuclear envelope.
ACROSOMAL PHASE
MATURATION PHASE
Structure of Spermatozoa
HEAD OF THE SPERMATOZOON
Figure 21–9 Spermiogenesis and a mature spermatozoon.
Figure 21–10 Scanning electron micrograph of human spermatozoa (×15,130). The entire spermatozoon is shown, including head region (HR), middle piece (MP), principal piece (PP), and end piece (EP) (×650). Inset, Head, neck (NK), and middle piece (MP).
TAIL OF THE SPERMATOZOON
CYCLE OF THE SEMINIFEROUS EPITHELIUM
Interstitial Cells of Leydig
Histophysiology of the Testes
Figure 21–11 The six stages of spermatogenesis in the human seminiferous tubule.
Figure 21–12 Low-magnification electron micrograph exhibits areas of two human Leydig cells (×18,150). Mitochondria are relatively uniform in diameter, and even at low magnification, stacked lamellae are an evident form of the cristae (arrowhead).
Figure 21–13 Testosterone synthesis by the interstitial cells of Leydig. ATP, adenosine triphosphate; cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate; CoA, coenzyme A; LH, luteinizing hormone; SER, smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Figure 21–14 Hormonal control of spermatogenesis. FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteiniz-ing hormone; LHRH, luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone.
GENITAL DUCTS
Intratesticular Genital Ducts
Tubuli Recti
Rete Testis
TABLE 21–1 Histological Features and Functions of Male Genital Ducts
Ductuli Efferentes
Extratesticular Genital Ducts
Figure 21–15 Electron micrograph of the epithelium of the bovine rete testis (×19,900). BL, basal lamina; CF, collagen fibers; CI, cilium; ID, interdigitation of the lateral plasmalemmae; JC, junctional complexes; MC, monocellular cell; MF, myofibroblast; N, nucleus.
Epididymis
Figure 21–16 Light micrograph of the epididymis in a monkey (×270). Basal cells (BC), epithelium (Ep), principal cells (PC), smooth muscle (SM).
Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Ejaculatory Duct
ACCESSORY GENITAL GLANDS
Seminal Vesicles
Figure 21–17 Light micrograph of the monkey seminal vesicle (×270). Basal cells (BC), columnar cells (CC), lumen (L), spermatozoa (Sz).
Figure 21–18 Human prostate gland.
Prostate Gland
Figure 21–19 Light micrograph of the prostate gland of a monkey (×132). Note areas of prostatic concretion (arrows).
Figure 21–20 Electron micrograph of the prostate gland in a hamster. G, Golgi apparatus; M, microvilli; R, rough endoplasmic reticulum. Bar = 5 μm.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Bulbourethral Glands
Histophysiology of the Accessory Genital Glands
PENIS
Figure 21–21 The penis in cross section.
Structure of Erectile Tissue
Mechanisms of Erection, Ejaculation, and Detumescence
Figure 21–22 Circulation in the flaccid and erect penis. The arteriovenous anastomosis (arrow) in the flaccid penis is wide, diverting blood flow into the venous drainage. In the erect penis, the arteriovenous anastomosis is constricted and blood flow into the vascular spaces of the erectile tissue is increased, causing the penis to become turgid with blood.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Chapter 22 Special Senses
SPECIALIZED PERIPHERAL RECEPTORS
Mechanoreceptors
Nonencapsulated Mechanoreceptors
Figure 22–1 Various mechanoreceptors. A, Merkel’s disk. B, Meissner’s corpuscle. C, Pacinian corpuscle. D, Peritricial (naked) nerve endings. E, Ruffini’s corpuscle. F, Krause’s end bulb. G, Muscle spindle. H, Golgi tendon organ.
Figure 22–2 Pacinian corpuscles (×132). Ca, capsule; IC, inner core; NF, nerve fiber; OC, outer core.
Figure 22–3 Meissner’s corpuscle (×540). Ca, capsule; N, nuclei; NF, nerve fiber.
Encapsulated Mechanoreceptors
Thermoreceptors
Nociceptors
EYE
Figure 22–4 Anatomy of the eye (orb).
Tunica Fibrosa
Sclera
Cornea
Tunica Vasculosa
Choroid
Ciliary Body
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Iris
Lens
Figure 22–5 Light micrograph of the lens (×132). Note the simple cuboidal epithelium (arrow) on the anterior surface and the capsule (Ca) covering the epithelium.
Figure 22–6 Scanning electron micrograph of the posterior surface of the lens (×28). C, ciliary body; L, lens; Z, zonula fibers.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Vitreous Body
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Retina (Neural Tunic)
Figure 22–7 Light micrograph of the retina with its described ten layers (×270). (1) Pigment epithelium, (2) lamina of rods and cones, (3) external (outer) limiting membrane, (4) outer nuclear layer, (5) outer plexiform layer, (6) inner nuclear layer, (7) inner plexiform layer, (8) ganglion cell layer, (9) optic nerve fiber layer, (10) inner limiting membrane.
Figure 22–8 Cellular layers of the retina. The space observed between the pigmented layer and the remainder of the retina is an artifact of development and does not exist in the adult except during detachment of the retina.
Figure 22–9 Morphology of a rod and a cone. BB, basal body; C, connecting stalk; Ce, centriole; IS, inner segment; M, mitochondria; NR, nuclear region; OS, outer segment; SR, synaptic region; SV, synaptic vesicles.
Pigment Epithelium
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Layer of Rods and Cones
Rods
Figure 22–10 Electron micrographs of rods from the eye of a frog and cones from the eye of a squirrel. A, Disks in the outer segment (arrowheads) and mitochondria (m) in the inner segment of the rod of a frog (×16,200). Note the cilium (arrow) connecting the inner and outer segments. B, Higher magnification of the disks in the outer segment of the rod of a frog (×76,500). C, Junction of the outer and inner segments of the cone of a squirrel (arrowheads, disks in the outer segment). m, mitochondria. (×28,800). D, Higher magnification of the disks in the outer segment of a squirrel eye showing continuity of the lamellae with the plasmalemma (arrowheads). (×82,800).
Cones
Figure 22–11 Scanning electron micrograph of the retina in a monkey in a displaying cones (C) and a few rods (R) (×5800). MV, microvilli belonging to the Müller cells; Z, inner segments; 3, external (outer) limiting membrane; 4, outer nuclear layer.
External (Outer) Limiting Membrane
Outer Nuclear Layer
Outer Plexiform Layer
Inner Nuclear Layer
Inner Plexiform Layer
Ganglion Cell Layer
Optic Nerve Fiber Layer
Inner Limiting Membrane
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Conjunctiva
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Eyelids
Lacrimal Apparatus
EAR (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR APPARATUS)
External Ear
Figure 22–12 Anatomy of the ear.
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Bony Labyrinth
Figure 22–13 Cochlea of the inner ear. A, Anatomy of bony labyrinth. B, Anatomy of the membranous labyrinth. C, Sensory labyrinth.
Membranous Labyrinth
Saccule and Utricle
Semicircular Ducts
Figure 22–14 Hair cells and supporting cells in the macula of the utricle.
Cochlear Duct and Organ of Corti
Figure 22–15 The morphology of type I and type II neuroepithelial (hair) cells of the maculae of the saccule and utricle.
Figure 22–16 The hair cells and supporting cells in one of the cristae ampullares of the semicircular canals.
Figure 22–17 Organ of Corti.
Figure 22–18 Light micrograph of the organ of Corti sitting on the basilar membrane (BM) within the cochlea (×180). The cochlear duct (CD), containing endolymph, is limited by the vestibular membrane (VM) and the BM. The scala vestibuli (SV) and the scala tympani (ST) contain perilymph. Observe the spiral ganglion and the vestibulocochlear (acoustic) nerve fibers (ANF) coming from the hair cells of the organ of Corti.
SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE ORGAN OF CORTI
NEUROEPITHELIAL CELLS (HAIR CELLS) OF THE ORGAN OF CORTI
Vestibular Function
Figure 22–19 Schematic diagram showing how vibrations of the footplate of the stapes move the membrane on the oval window. This action produces a pressure in the perilymph, located in the scala vestibuli. At the helicotrema, where the scala vestibuli and scala tympani communicate, the pressure wave within the perilymph of the scala tympani sets the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti, sitting on it, into motion. This causes a shearing motion on the hair cells of the basilar membrane, which is transduced into an electric current and in turn is transmitted by a synapse to the cochlear division of the vestibulocochlear nerve for conduction to the brain for processing.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Cochlear Functions
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

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