1. 1 The Study of Body Function
2.   1.1 Introduction to Physiology
3. Scientific Method
4.   1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control
5. History of Physiology
6. Negative Feedback Loops
7. Positive Feedback
8. Neural and Endocrine Regulation
9. Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion
10.   1.3 The Primary Tissues
11. Muscle Tissue
12. Nerve Tissue
13. Epithelial Tissue
14. Connective Tissue
15.   1.4 Organs and Systems
16. An Example of an Organ: The Skin
17. Systems
18. Body-Fluid Compartments
19. Summary
20. Review Activities
21. 2 Chemical Composition of the Body
22.   2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds
23. Atoms
24. Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds
25. Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
26. Organic Molecules
27.   2.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids
28. Carbohydrates
29. Lipids
30.   2.3 Proteins
31. Structure of Proteins
32. Functions of Proteins
33.   2.4 Nucleic Acids
34. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
35. Ribonucleic Acid
36. Summary
37. Review Activities
38. 3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control
39.   3.1 Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures
40. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
41. Phagocytosis
42. Endocytosis
43. Exocytosis
44. Cilia and Flagella
45. Microvilli
46.   3.2 Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
47. Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
48. Lysosomes
49. Peroxisomes
50. Mitochondria
51. Ribosomes
52. Endoplasmic Reticulum
53. Golgi Complex
54.   3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression
55. Genome and Proteome
56. Chromatin
57. RNA Synthesis
58. RNA Interference
59.   3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion
60. Transfer RNA
61. Formation of a Polypeptide
62. Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex
63. Protein Degradation
64.   3.5 Dna Synthesis and Cell Division
65. DNA Replication
66. The Cell Cycle
67. Mitosis
68. Meiosis
69. Epigenetic Inheritance
70. Interactions
71. Summary
72. Review Activities
73. 4 Enzymes and Energy
74.   4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts
75. Mechanism of Enzyme Action
76. Naming of Enzymes
77.   4.2 Control of Enzyme Activity
78. Effects of Temperature and pH
79. Cofactors and Coenzymes
80. Enzyme Activation
81. Substrate Concentration and Reversible Reactions
82. Metabolic Pathways
83.   4.3 Bioenergetics
84. Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions
85. Coupled Reactions: ATP
86. Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction
87. Summary
88. Review Activities
89. 5 Cell Respiration and Metabolism
90.   5.1 Glycolysis and the Lactic Acid Pathway
91. Glycolysis
92. Lactic Acid Pathway
93.   5.2 Aerobic Respiration
94. Citric Acid Cycle
95. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
96. Coupling of Electron Transport to ATP Production
97. ATP Balance Sheet
98.   5.3 Interconversion of Glucose, Lactic Acid, and Glycogen
99. Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
100. Cori Cycle
101.   5.4 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins
102. Lipid Metabolism
103. Amino Acid Metabolism
104. Uses of Different Energy Sources
105. Interactions
106. Summary
107. Review Activities
108. 6 Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment
109.   6.1 Extracellular Environment
110. Body Fluids
111. Extracellular Matrix
112. Categories of Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
113.   6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis
114. Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
115. Rate of Diffusion
116. Osmosis
117. Regulation of Blood Osmolality
118.   6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport
119. Facilitated Diffusion
120. Active Transport
121. Bulk Transport
122.   6.4 The Membrane Potential
123. Equilibrium Potentials
124. Resting Membrane Potential
125.   6.5 Cell Signaling
126. Second Messengers
127. G-Proteins
128. Interactions
129. Summary
130. Review Activities
131. 7 The Nervous System
132.   7.1 Neurons and Supporting Cells
133. Neurons
134. Classification of Neurons and Nerves
135. Neuroglia
136. Neurilemma and Myelin Sheath
137. Functions of Astrocytes
138.   7.2 Electrical Activity In Axons
139. Ion Gating in Axons
140. Action Potentials
141. Conduction of Nerve Impulses
142.   7.3 The Synapse
143. Electrical Synapses: Gap Junctions
144. Chemical Synapses
145.   7.4 Acetylcholine as a Neurotransmitter
146. Chemically Regulated Channels
147. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
148. Acetylcholine in the PNS
149. Acetylcholine in the CNS
150.   7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters
151. Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter
152. Dopamine as a Neurotransmitter
153. Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter
154.   7.6 Other Neurotransmitters
155. Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters
156. Polypeptides as Neurotransmitters
157. Endocannabinoids as Neurotransmitters
158. Gases as Neurotransmitters
159. ATP and Adenosine as Neurotransmitters
160.   7.7 Synaptic Integration
161. Synaptic Plasticity
162. Synaptic Inhibition
163. Summary
164. Review Activities
165. 8 The Central Nervous System
166.   8.1 Structural Organization of the Brain
167.   8.2 Cerebrum
168. Cerebral Cortex
169. Basal Nuclei
170. Cerebral Lateralization
171. Language
172. Limbic System and Emotion
173. Memory
174. Emotion and Memory
175.   8.3 Diencephalon
176. Thalamus and Epithalamus
177. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
178.   8.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain
179. Midbrain
180. Hindbrain
181. Reticular Activating System in Sleep and Arousal
182.   8.5 Spinal Cord Tracts
183. Ascending Tracts
184. Descending Tracts
185.   8.6 Cranial and Spinal Nerves
186. Cranial Nerves
187. Spinal Nerves
188. Summary
189. Review Activities
190. 9 The Autonomic Nervous System
191.   9.1 Neural Control of Involuntary Effectors
192. Autonomic Neurons
193. Visceral Effector Organs
194.   9.2 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
195. Sympathetic Division
196. Parasympathetic Division
197.   9.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
198. Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic Transmission
199. Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation
200. Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation
201. Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters
202. Organs with Dual Innervation
203. Organs Without Dual Innervation
204. Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers
205. Interactions
206. Summary
207. Review Activities
208. 10   Sensory Physiology
209. 10.1 Characteristics of Sensory Receptors
210. Categories of Sensory Receptors
211. Law of Specific Nerve Energies
212. Generator (Receptor) Potential
213. 10.2 Cutaneous Sensations
214. Neural Pathways for Somatesthetic Sensations
215. Receptive Fields and Sensory Acuity
216. Lateral Inhibition
217. 10.3 Taste and Smell
218. Taste
219. Smell
220. 10.4 Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium
221. Sensory Hair Cells of the Vestibular Apparatus
222. Utricle and Saccule
223. Semicircular Canals
224. 10.5 The Ears and Hearing
225. Outer Ear
226. Middle Ear
227. Cochlea
228. Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti)
229. 10.6 The Eyes and Vision
230. Refraction
231. Accommodation
232. Visual Acuity
233. 10.7 Retina
234. Effect of Light on the Rods
235. Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells
236. Cones and Color Vision
237. Visual Acuity and Sensitivity
238. Neural Pathways from the Retina
239. 10.8 Neural Processing of Visual Information
240. Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields
241. Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
242. Cerebral Cortex
243. Interactions
244. Summary
245. Review Activities
246. 11   Endocrine Glands
247. 11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones
248. Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine Regulation
249. Chemical Classification of Hormones
250. Prohormones and Prehormones
251. Hormone Interactions
252. Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Response
253. 11.2 Mechanisms of Hormone Action
254. Hormones That Bind to Nuclear Receptor Proteins
255. Hormones That Use Second Messengers
256. 11.3 Pituitary Gland
257. Pituitary Hormones
258. Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary
259. Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary
260. Feedback Control of the Anterior Pituitary
261. Higher Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion
262. 11.4 Adrenal Glands
263. Functions of the Adrenal Cortex
264. Functions of the Adrenal Medulla
265. Stress and the Adrenal Gland
266. 11.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
267. Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones
268. Parathyroid Glands
269. 11.6 Pancreas and Other Endocrine Glands
270. Pancreatic Islets
271. Pineal Gland
272. Gastrointestinal Tract
273. Gonads and Placenta
274. 11.7 Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation
275. Examples of Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation
276. Prostaglandins
277. Interactions
278. Summary
279. Review Activities
280. 12   Muscle
281. 12.1 Skeletal Muscles
282. Structure of Skeletal Muscles
283. Motor End Plates and Motor Units
284. 12.2 Mechanisms of Contraction
285. Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction
286. Regulation of Contraction
287. 12.3 Contractions of Skeletal Muscles
288. Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus
289. Types of Muscle Contractions
290. Series-Elastic Component
291. Length-Tension Relationship
292. 12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscles
293. Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles
294. Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers
295. Muscle Fatigue
296. Adaptations of Muscles to Exercise Training
297. Muscle Damage and Repair
298. 12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles
299. Muscle Spindle
300. Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons
301. Coactivation of Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons
302. Skeletal Muscle Reflexes
303. Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal Muscles
304. 12.6 Cardiac and Smooth Muscles
305. Cardiac Muscle
306. Smooth Muscle
307. Interactions
308. Summary
309. Review Activities
310. 13   Blood, Heart, and Circulation
311. 13.1 Functions and Components of the Circulatory System
312. Functions of the Circulatory System
313. Major Components of the Circulatory System
314. 13.2 Composition of the Blood
315. Blood Plasma
316. The Formed Elements of Blood
317. Hematopoiesis
318. Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Typing
319. Blood Clotting
320. Dissolution of Clots
321. 13.3 Structure of the Heart
322. Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
323. Atrioventricular and Semilunar Valves
324. Heart Sounds
325. 13.4 Cardiac Cycle
326. Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle
327. 13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and the Electrocardiogram
328. Electrical Activity of the Heart
329. The Electrocardiogram
330. 13.6 Blood Vessels
331. Arteries
332. Capillaries
333. Veins
334. 13.7 Atherosclerosis and Cardiac Arrhythmias
335. Atherosclerosis
336. Arrhythmias Detected by the Electrocardiograph
337. 13.8 Lymphatic System
338. Summary
339. Review Activities
340. 14   Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood Pressure
341. 14.1 Cardiac Output
342. Regulation of Cardiac Rate
343. Regulation of Stroke Volume
344. Venous Return
345. 14.2 Blood Volume
346. Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and Tissues
347. Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys
348. 14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow
349. Physical Laws Describing Blood Flow
350. Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
351. Paracrine Regulation of Blood Flow
352. Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
353. 14.4 Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal Muscles
354. Aerobic Requirements of the Heart
355. Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow
356. Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal Muscles
357. Circulatory Changes During Exercise
358. 14.5 Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin
359. Cerebral Circulation
360. Cutaneous Blood Flow
361. 14.6 Blood Pressure
362. Baroreceptor Reflex
363. Atrial Stretch Reflexes
364. Measurement of Blood Pressure
365. Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure
366. 14.7 Hypertension, Shock, and Congestive Heart Failure
367. Hypertension
368. Circulatory Shock
369. Congestive Heart Failure
370. Interactions
371. Summary
372. Review Activities
373. 15   The Immune System
374. 15.1 Defense Mechanisms
375. Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity
376. Adaptive (Specific) Immunity
377. Lymphocytes and Lymphoid Organs
378. Local Inflammation
379. 15.2 Functions of B Lymphocytes
380. Antibodies
381. The Complement System
382. 15.3 Functions of T Lymphocytes
383. Cytotoxic, Helper, and Regulatory T Lymphocytes
384. Interactions Between Antigen-Presenting Cells and T Lymphocytes
385. 15.4 Active and Passive Immunity
386. Active Immunity and the Clonal Selection Theory
387. Immunological Tolerance
388. Passive Immunity
389. 15.5 Tumor Immunology
390. Innate Lymphoid Cells
391. Effects of Aging and Stress
392. 15.6 Diseases Caused by the Immune System
393. Autoimmunity
394. Immune Complex Diseases
395. Allergy
396. Interactions
397. Summary
398. Review Activities
399. 16   Respiratory Physiology
400. 16.1 The Respiratory System
401. Structure of the Respiratory System
402. Thoracic Cavity
403. 16.2 Physical Aspects of Ventilation
404. Intrapulmonary and Intrapleural Pressures
405. Physical Properties of the Lungs
406. Surfactant and Respiratory Distress Syndrome
407. 16.3 Mechanics of Breathing
408. Inspiration and Expiration
409. Pulmonary Function Tests
410. Pulmonary Disorders
411. 16.4 Gas Exchange in the Lungs
412. Calculation of PO2
413. Partial Pressures of Gases in Blood
414. Significance of Blood PO2 and PCO2 Measurements
415. Pulmonary Circulation and Ventilation/Perfusion Ratios
416. Disorders Caused by High Partial Pressures of Gases
417. 16.5 Regulation of Breathing
418. Brain Stem Respiratory Centers
419. Effects of Blood PCO2 and pH on Ventilation
420. Effects of Blood PO2 on Ventilation
421. Effects of Pulmonary Receptors on Ventilation
422. 16.6 Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
423. Hemoglobin
424. The Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
425. Effect of pH and Temperature on Oxygen Transport
426. Effect of 2,3-DPG on Oxygen Transport
427. Inherited Defects in Hemoglobin Structure and Function
428. Muscle Myoglobin
429. 16.7 Carbon Dioxide Transport
430. The Chloride Shift
431. The Reverse Chloride Shift
432. 16.8 Acid-Base Balance of the Blood
433. Principles of Acid-Base Balance
434. Ventilation and Acid-Base Balance
435. 16.9 Effect of Exercise and High Altitude on Respiratory Function
436. Ventilation During Exercise
437. Acclimatization to High Altitude
438. Interactions
439. Summary
440. Review Activities
441. 17   Physiology of the Kidneys
442. 17.1 Structure and Function of the Kidneys
443. Gross Structure of the Urinary System
444. Control of Micturition
445. Microscopic Structure of the Kidney
446. 17.2 Glomerular Filtration
447. Glomerular Ultrafiltrate
448. Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
449. 17.3 Reabsorption of Salt and Water
450. Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
451. The Countercurrent Multiplier System
452. Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
453. 17.4 Renal Plasma Clearance
454. Transport Process Affecting Renal Clearance
455. Renal Clearance of Inulin: Measurement of GFR
456. Renal Clearance Measurements
457. Reabsorption of Glucose
458. 17.5 Renal Control of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
459. Role of Aldosterone in Na+/K+ Balance
460. Control of Aldosterone Secretion
461. Natriuretic Peptides
462. Relationship Between Na+, K+, and H+
463. Renal Acid-Base Regulation
464. 17.6 Diuretics and Renal Function Tests
465. Use of Diuretics
466. Renal Function Tests and Kidney Disease
467. Interactions
468. Summary
469. Review Activities
470. 18   The Digestive System
471. 18.1 Introduction to the Digestive System
472. Layers of the Alimentary Tract
473. Regulation of the Alimentary Tract
474. 18.2 From Mouth to Stomach
475. Esophagus
476. Stomach
477. Pepsin and Hydrochloric Acid Secretion
478. 18.3 Small Intestine
479. Villi and Microvilli
480. Intestinal Enzymes
481. Intestinal Contractions and Motility
482. 18.4 Large Intestine
483. Intestinal Microbiota
484. Fluid and Electrolyte Absorption in the Intestine
485. Defecation
486. 18.5 Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
487. Structure of the Liver
488. Functions of the Liver
489. Gallbladder
490. Pancreas
491. 18.6 Regulation of the Digestive System
492. Regulation of Gastric Function
493. Regulation of Intestinal Function
494. Regulation of Pancreatic Juice and Bile Secretion
495. Trophic Effects of Gastrointestinal Hormones
496. 18.7 Digestion and Absorption of Food
497. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
498. Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
499. Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
500. Interactions
501. Summary
502. Review Activities
503. 19   Regulation of Metabolism
504. 19.1 Nutritional Requirements
505. Metabolic Rate and Caloric Requirements
506. Anabolic Requirements
507. Vitamins and Minerals
508. Free Radicals and Antioxidants
509. 19.2 Regulation of Energy Metabolism
510. Regulatory Functions of Adipose Tissue
511. Regulation of Hunger and Metabolic Rate
512. Caloric Expenditures
513. Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
514. 19.3 Energy Regulation by the Pancreatic Islets
515. Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion
516. Insulin and Glucagon: Absorptive State
517. Insulin and Glucagon: Postabsorptive State
518. 19.4 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypoglycemia
519. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
520. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
521. Hypoglycemia
522. 19.5 Metabolic Regulation by Adrenal Hormones, Thyroxine, and Growth Hormone
523. Adrenal Hormones
524. Thyroxine
525. Growth Hormone
526. 19.6 Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Balance
527. Bone Deposition and Resorption
528. Hormonal Regulation of Bone
529. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3
530. Negative Feedback Control of Calcium and Phosphate Balance
531. Summary
532. Review Activities
533. 20   Reproduction
534. 20.1 Sexual Reproduction
535. Sex Determination
536. Development of Accessory Sex Organs and External Genitalia
537. Disorders of Embryonic Sexual Development
538. 20.2 Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction
539. Interactions Among the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Gonads
540. Onset of Puberty
541. Pineal Gland
542. Human Sexual Response
543. 20.3 Male Reproductive System
544. Control of Gonadotropin Secretion
545. Endocrine Functions of the Testes
546. Spermatogenesis
547. Male Accessory Sex Organs
548. Erection, Emission, and Ejaculation
549. Male Fertility
550. 20.4 Female Reproductive System
551. Ovarian Cycle
552. Ovulation
553. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian Axis
554. 20.5 Menstrual Cycle
555. Phases of the Menstrual Cycle: Cyclic Changes in the Ovaries
556. Cyclic Changes in the Endometrium
557. Effects of Pheromones, Stress, and Body Fat
558. Contraceptive Methods
559. Menopause
560. 20.6 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Parturition
561. Fertilization
562. Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation
563. Implantation of the Blastocyst and Formation of the Placenta
564. Exchange of Molecules Across the Placenta
565. Endocrine Functions of the Placenta
566. Labor and Parturition
567. Lactation
568. Concluding Remarks
569. Interactions
570. Summary
571. Review Activities
572. Appendixes
573. Answers to Test Your Knowledge Questions
574. Medical and Pharmacological Abbreviations
575. Glossary
576. Index

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