Test Bank for Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd Edition: Silberberg

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• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0077366670
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0077366674
• Author; Silberberg

Silberberg’s Principles of General Chemistry offers students the same authoritative topic coverage as its parent text, Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. The Principles text allows for succinct coverage of content with minimal emphasis on pedagogic learning aids. This more straightforward approach to learning appeals to today’s efficiency-minded, value-conscious instructors and students without sacrificing depth, clarity, or rigor.

Table of Contents

Brief Contents
	1	Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1
	2	The Components of Matter 31
	3	Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69
	4	The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108
	5	Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 138
	6	Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177
	7	Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205
	8	Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235
	9	Models of Chemical Bonding 268
	10	The Shapes of Molecules 296
	11	Theories of Covalent Bonding 323
	12	Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347
	13	The Properties of Solutions 389
	14	The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bonding and Structure 423
	15	Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457
	16	Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498
	17	Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540
	18	Acid-Base Equilibria 577
	19	Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615
	20	Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions 
650
	21	Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681
	22	The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734
	23	Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762
Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15
Contents
1	CHAPTER
Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1
1.1	Some Fundamental Definitions 2
The Properties of Matter 2
The Three States of Matter 3
The Central Theme in Chemistry 5
The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 5
1.2	The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 7
1.3	Chemical Problem Solving 9
Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 9
A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 11
1.4	Measurement in Scientific Study 13
General Features of SI Units 13
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 14
1.5	Uncertainty in Measurement:Significant Figures 21
Determining Which Digits AreSignificant 22
Significant Figures in Calculations 22
Precision, Accuracy, and InstrumentCalibration 24
	For Review and Reference 25
	Problems 27
2	CHAPTER
The Components of Matter 31
2.1	Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 32
2.2	The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 34
Mass Conservation 34
Definite Composition 34
Multiple Proportions 35
2.3	Dalton?s Atomic Theory 36
Postulates of the Atomic Theory 36
How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 37
2.4	The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 37
Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 37
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 39
2.5	The Atomic Theory Today 41
Structure of the Atom 41
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 42
Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements 42
2.6	Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 45
2.7	Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 47
The Formation of Ionic Compounds 48
The Formation of Covalent Compounds 50
2.8	Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 51
Types of Chemical Formulas 51
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 52
Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds 57
Naming Alkanes 58
Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 58
Picturing Molecules 60
2.9	Classification of Mixtures 60
	For Review and Reference 62
	Problems 63
3	CHAPTER
Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69
3.1	The Mole 70
Defining the Mole 70
Molar Mass 72
Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 73
Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula 75
3.2	Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 77
Empirical Formulas 77
Molecular Formulas 78
3.3	Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 82
3.4	Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product 87
Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from theBalanced Equation 87
Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 90
Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, andPercent Yields 93
3.5	Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry 95
Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 95
Mole-Mass-Number Conversions InvolvingSolutions 95
Dilution of Molar Solutions 96
Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution 98
	For Review and Reference 100
	Problems 102
4	CHAPTER
The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108
4.1	The Role of Water as a Solvent 109
The Polar Nature of Water 109
Ionic Compounds in Water 109
Covalent Compounds in Water 112
4.2	Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 113
4.3	Precipitation Reactions 115
The Key Event: Formation of a Solid fromDissolved Ions 115
Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 116
4.4	Acid-Base Reactions 117
The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H1 and OH2 118
Acid-Base Titrations 119
Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-BaseReactions 121
4.5	Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)Reactions 123
The Key Event: Movement of ElectronsBetween Reactants 123
Some Essential Redox Terminology 124
Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor theMovement of Electron Charge 124
4.6	Elements in Redox Reactions 126
Combining Two Elements 127
Combining Compound and Element 127
Decomposing Compounds into Elements 127
Displacing One Element by Another; Activity Series 128
Combustion Reactions 130
	For Review and Reference 131
	Problems 132
5	CHAPTER
Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory	138
5.1	An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 139
5.2	Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 140
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 141
Units of Pressure 141
5.3	The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 143
The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure:Boyle?s Law 143
The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature:Charles?s Law 144
The Relationship Between Volume and Amount:Avogadro?s Law 146
Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 147
The Ideal Gas Law 148
Solving Gas Law Problems 149
5.4	Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law 152
The Density of a Gas 153
The Molar Mass of a Gas 154
The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases 155
5.5	The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 158
5.6	The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 160
How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 160
Effusion and Diffusion 164
5.7	Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 165
Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 166
The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned 168
	For Review and Reference 168
	Problems 170
6	CHAPTER
Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177
6.1	Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 178
The System and Its Surroundings 178
Energy Flow to and from a System 178
Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 179
The Law of Energy Conservation 181
Units of Energy 182
State Functions and the Path Independence of theEnergy Change 183
6.2	Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change 184
The Meaning of Enthalpy 185
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 185
6.3	Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction 187
Specific Heat Capacity 187
The Practice of Calorimetry 188
6.4	Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 191
6.5	Hess?s Law of Heat Summation 192
6.6	Standard Heats of Reaction (DH8rxn) 194
Formation Equations and Their Standard EnthalpyChanges 194
Determining DH8rxn from DH8f Values of Reactants andProducts 195
Fossil Fuels and Climate Change 197
	For Review and Reference 198
	Problems 200
7	CHAPTER
Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205
7.1	The Nature of Light 206
The Wave Nature of Light 206
The Particle Nature of Light 210
7.2	Atomic Spectra 212
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 213
The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 215
Spectral Analysis in the Laboratory 216
7.3	The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy 218
The Wave Nature of Electrons and the ParticleNature of Photons 218
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 221
7.4	The Quantum-Mechanical Modelof the Atom 221
The Atomic Orbital and the ProbableLocation of the Electron 221
Quantum Numbers of an AtomicOrbital 223
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 226
The Special Case of the Hydrogen Atom 230
	For Review and Reference 230
	Problems 231
8	CHAPTER
Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235
8.1	Development of the Periodic Table 236
8.2	Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms 236
The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 237
The Exclusion Principle 237
Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 238
8.3	The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 240
Building Up Periods 1 and 2 240
Building Up Period 3 242
Electron Configurations Within Groups 243
The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4 244
General Principles of Electron Configurations 245
Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 247
8.4	Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties 249
Trends in Atomic Size 249
Trends in Ionization Energy 252
Trends in Electron Affinity 255
8.5	Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity 257
Trends in Metallic Behavior 257
Properties of Monatomic Ions 258
	For Review and Reference 264
	Problems 265
9	CHAPTER
Models of Chemical Bonding 268
9.1	Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 269
The Three Types of Chemical Bonding 269
Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms inChemical Bonding 271
9.2	The Ionic Bonding Model 272
Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance ofLattice Energy 273
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 274
How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 275
9.3	The Covalent Bonding Model 277
The Formation of a Covalent Bond 277
Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length 279
How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances 281
9.4	Bond Energy and Chemical Change 283
Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does DH8rxn Come From? 283
Using Bond Energies to Calculate DH8rxn 283
Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods 286
9.5	Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 287
Electronegativity 287
Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity 288
The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds 289
The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period 290
	For Review and Reference 291
	Problems 292
10	CHAPTER
The Shapes of Molecules 296
10.1	Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures 297
Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures 297
Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding 300
Formal Charge: Selecting the Most Important ResonanceStructure 302
Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 303
10.2	Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular 
Shape 306
Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes 307
The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (LinearArrangement) 308
Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal PlanarArrangement) 308
Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (TetrahedralArrangement) 309
Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal 
BipyramidalArrangement) 311
Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (OctahedralArrangement) 312
Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape 312
Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 314
10.3	Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 315
	For Review and Reference 317
	Problems 319
11	CHAPTER
Theories of Covalent Bonding 323
11.1	Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization 324
The Central Themes of VB Theory 324
Types of Hybrid Orbitals 325
11.2	The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types ofCovalent Bonds 331
Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds 331
Mode of Overlap and Molecular Properties 332
11.3	Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory andElectron Delocalization 334
The Central Themes of MO Theory 335
Homonuclear Diatomic Moleculesof the Period 2 Elements 337
	For Review and Reference 342
	Problems 344
12	CHAPTER
Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347
12.1	An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 348
12.2	Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes 351
Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach 351
The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes 353
Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature onPhysical State 356
12.3	Types of Intermolecular Forces 358
Ion-Dipole Forces 360
Dipole-Dipole Forces 360
The Hydrogen Bond 361
Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces 362
Dispersion (London) Forces 363
12.4	Properties of the Liquid State 365
Surface Tension 365
Capillarity 366
Viscosity 367
12.5	The Uniqueness of Water 367
Solvent Properties of Water 368
Thermal Properties of Water 368
Surface Properties of Water 368
The Density of Solid and Liquid Water 368
12.6	The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 369
Structural Features of Solids 369
Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids 376
Amorphous Solids 379
Bonding in Solids 380
	For Review and Reference 383
	Problems 384
13	CHAPTER
The Properties of Solutions 389
13.1	Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces andPredicting Solubility 390
Intermolecular Forces in Solution 391
Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity 392
Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 395
13.2	Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the SolutionProcess 395
Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles 396
Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water 397
The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 398
13.3	Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 399
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 400
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 401
13.4	Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration 402
Molarity and Molality 402
Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 404
Interconverting Concentration Terms 405
13.5	Colligative Properties of Solutions 407
Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 407
Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass 412
Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 413
Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 414
	For Review and Reference 416
	Problems 418
14	CHAPTER
The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bondingand Structure 423
14.1	Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 424
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 424
14.2	Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 425
The Unusual Physical Properties of the Alkali Metals 425
The High Reactivity of the Alkali Metals 425
The Anomalous Behavior of Period 2 Members 427
14.3	Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals 428
How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earthand Alkali Metals 
Compare? 428
How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth andAlkali Metals 
Compare? 428
Diagonal Relationships 428
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2),and 3A(13) 430
14.4	Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 430
How Do Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13)Properties? 430
What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties ofGroup 3A(13)? 430
Highlights of Boron Chemistry 432
14.5	Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 433
How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect PhysicalProperties? 433
How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14)Compounds? 435
Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 436
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 437
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14),and 5A(15) 438
14.6	Group 5A(15): The NitrogenFamily 438
The Wide Range of Physical andChemical Behavior inGroup 5A(15) 438
Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 440
Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 443
14.7	Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family 443
How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen FamiliesCompare Physically? 445
How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen FamiliesCompare Chemically? 445
Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry 446
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 446
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16),and 7A(17) 447
14.8	Group 7A(17): The Halogens 447
What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens?Physical Properties? 447
Why Are the Halogens So Reactive? 447
Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 449
14.9	Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 450
How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds? 450
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18),and 1A(1) 452
	For Review and Reference 452
	Problems 453
15	CHAPTER
Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457
15.1	The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules 458
The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules 458
The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 459
15.2	The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons 460
Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 460
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds 463
Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Propertiesof Alkanes 465
Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism 467
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds 468
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds 469
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules withDelocalized p Electrons 471
15.3	Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions 472
15.4	Properties and Reactivities of CommonFunctional Groups 473
Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds 475
Functional Groups with Double Bonds 478
Functional Groups with Both Single and Double Bonds 479
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 482
15.5	The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: SyntheticMacromolecules 483
Addition Polymers 483
Condensation Polymers 485
15.6	The Monomer-Polymer Theme II:Biological Macromolecules 486
Sugars and Polysaccharides 486
Amino Acids and Proteins 487
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 490
	For Review and Reference 492
	Problems 493
16	CHAPTER
Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498
16.1	Factors That Influence Reaction Rate 499
16.2	Expressing the Reaction Rate 500
Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates 501
Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and ProductConcentrations 503
16.3	The Rate Law and Its Components 505
Reaction Order Terminology 506
Determining Reaction Orders Experimentally 507
Determining the Rate Constant 509
16.4	Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time 510
Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-OrderReactions 510
Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law 512
Reaction Half-Life 513
16.5	The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 516
16.6	Explaining the Effects ofConcentration and Temperature 518
Collision Theory: Basis of theRate Law 518
Transition State Theory: MolecularNature of the Activated Complex 520
16.7	Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction 523
Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 524
The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism 525
Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 526
16.8	Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction 529
Homogeneous Catalysis 530
Heterogeneous Catalysis 530
Catalysis in Nature 531
	For Review and Reference 533
	Problems 535
17	CHAPTER
Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540
17.1	The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant 541
17.2	The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant 543
Writing the Reaction Quotient 545
Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient 546
17.3	Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 549
17.4	Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K 550
17.5	How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 551
Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant 552
Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities 554
Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining ReactionDirection 559
17.6	Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State:Le Ch¿telier?s Principle 561
The Effect of a Change in Concentration 561
The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) 564
The Effect of a Change in Temperature 566
The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 567
The Industrial Production of Ammonia 569
	For Review and Reference 570
	Problems 571
18	CHAPTER
Acid-Base Equilibria 577
18.1	Acids and Bases in Water 578
Release of H1 or OH2 and the Classical Acid-Base Definition 578
Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) 579
Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 581
18.2	Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale 583
The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water 
(Kw) 583
Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 584
18.3	Proton Transfer and the Br?nsted-Lowry Acid-BaseDefinition 587
The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 588
Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction ofReaction 590
18.4	Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria 591
Finding Ka Given Concentrations 592
Finding Concentrations Given Ka 594
The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation 595
The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 595
18.5	Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids 596
Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines 596
Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 598
The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 599
18.6	Molecular Properties and Acid Strength 600
Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 600
Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids 601
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 602
18.7	Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 603
Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 603
Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 603
Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 604
Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 605
18.8	Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition 606
Molecules as Lewis Acids 607
Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 607
	For Review and Reference 609
	Problems 610
19	CHAPTER
Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615
19.1	Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems 616
How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect 617
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 621
Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 621
Preparing a Buffer 623
19.2	Acid-Base Titration Curves 624
Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators 624
Strong Acid?Strong Base Titration Curves 626
Weak Acid?Strong Base Titration Curves 628
Weak Base?Strong Acid Titration Curves 631
19.3	Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds 632
The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-ProductConstant (Ksp) 632
Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant 634
The Effect of a Common Ion onSolubility 636
The Effect of pH on Solubility 637
Predicting the Formation of aPrecipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 638
Applying Ionic Equilibria to theAcid-Rain Problem 639
19.4	Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 641
Formation of Complex Ions 641
Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates 643
	For Review and Reference 644
	Problems 646
20	CHAPTER
Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Directionof Chemical 
Reactions 650
20.1	The Second Law of Thermodynamics:Predicting Spontaneous Change 651
Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics 651
The Sign of DH Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change 652
Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Particle Energy 653
Entropy and the Number of Microstates 653
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 656
Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 657
20.2	Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction 661
Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy ofReaction (DS8rxn) 661
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Partof the Total 662
The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State 664
Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:A Summary 665
20.3	Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 666
Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity 666
Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes 667
DG and the Work a System Can Do 668
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity 669
Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change 671
20.4	Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction 672
	For Review and Reference 676
	Problems 677
21	CHAPTER
Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681
21.1	Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells 682
A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts 682
Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions 683
An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 686
21.2	Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy 687
Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell 688
Notation for a Voltaic Cell 690
21.3	Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell 692
Standard Cell Potentials 692
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 695
21.4	Free Energy and Electrical Work 700
Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 700
The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 703
Changes in Potential During Cell Operation 704
Concentration Cells 705
21.5	Electrochemical Processes in Batteries 708
Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 709
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 710
Fuel Cells 711
21.6	Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry 713
The Corrosion of Iron 713
Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 714
21.7	Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous 
Reactions 715
Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell 716
Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 717
Industrial Electrochemistry: Purifying Copper and IsolatingAluminum 721
The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and 
Product 724
	For Review and Reference 726
	Problems 728
22	CHAPTER
The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734
22.1	Properties of the Transition Elements 735
Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions 736
Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements 737
Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals 739
22.2	Coordination Compounds 741
Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries,and Ligands 742
Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds 743
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 745
22.3	Theoretical Basis for the Bondingand Properties of Complexes 748
Application of Valence Bond Theory toComplex Ions 748
Crystal Field Theory 750
Transition Metal Complexes inBiological Systems 756
	For Review and Reference 758
	Problems 759
23	CHAPTER
Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762
23.1	Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability 763
The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation 763
Types of Radioactive Emissions and Decay; BalancingNuclear Equations 764
Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 767
23.2	The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 770
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 770
Radioisotopic Dating 773
24.3	Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei 774
23.4	The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter 776
The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation andIonization 776
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter 777
23.5	Applications of Radioisotopes 779
Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation 779
Applications of Ionizing Radiation 780
23.6	The Interconversion of Mass and Energy 781
The Mass Defect 782
Nuclear Binding Energy 783
23.7	Applications of Fission and Fusion 785
The Process of Nuclear Fission 785
The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 788
	For Review and Reference 788
	Problems 790
Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1
Manipulating Logarithms A-1
Using Exponential (Scientific) Notation A-2
Solving Quadratic Equations A-3
Graphing Data in the Form of a Straight Line A-4
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Selected Acids A-8
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Kb) of Selected AmineBases A-11
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Some Hydrated Metal Ions A-12
Formation Constants (Kf) of Some Complex Ions A-12
Solubility Product Constants (Ksp) of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds A-13
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentialsat 298 K A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

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